Nominalization
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In linguistics, nominalization or nominalisation, also known as substantivation or nouning,[1] is the use of a word that is not a noun (e.g., a verb, an adjective or an adverb) as a noun, or as the head of a noun phrase. This change in functional category can occur through morphological transformation, but it does not always. Nominalization can refer, for instance, to the process of producing a noun from another part of speech by adding a derivational affix (e.g., the noun "legalization" from the verb "legalize"),[2] but it can also refer to the complex noun that is formed as a result.[3]
Some languages simply allow verbs to be used as nouns without inflectional difference (conversion or zero derivation), while others require some form of morphological transformation. English has cases of both.
Nominalization is a natural part of language, but some instances are more noticeable than others. Writing advice sometimes focuses on avoiding overuse of nominalization. Texts that contain a high level of nominalized words can be dense,[4] but these nominalized forms can also be useful for fitting a larger volume of information into smaller sentences.[5] Often, using an active verb (rather than a nominalized verb) is the most direct option.[6]
In various languages
[edit]English nominalization
[edit]Two types of nominalization occur in English.[7] The first requires the addition of a derivational suffix to a word to create a noun. In other cases, English uses the same word as a noun without any additional morphology. This second process is referred to as zero-derivation.
Derivational morphology and nominalization
[edit]Derivational morphology is a process by which a grammatical expression is turned into a noun phrase. For example, in the sentence "Combine the two chemicals," combine acts as a verb. This can be turned into a noun via the addition of the suffix -ation, as in "The experiment involved the combination of the two chemicals." There are many suffixes that can be used to create nouns. Huddleston (2002) provides a thorough list that is split into two main sections: person/instrument nominalizations and action/state/process nominalizations. An especially common case of verbs being used as nouns is the addition of the suffix -ing, known in English as a gerund.
| Nominalization type | Derived nominals | Formation | Sentence examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominalized adjective |
|
applicable (Adj) + -ibility | The applicability of the law in this case is debatable. |
|
intense (Adj) + -ity | The intensity of her gaze frightened the dog. | |
|
happy (Adj) + -ness | Her happiness was a result of having her loving friends. | |
| Nominalized verb |
|
react (V) + -ion | The children's reactions to receiving candy were priceless. |
|
refuse (V) + -al | The board's refusal to consider the motion ended the meeting. | |
|
adjust (V) + -ment[8] | Starting University is a big adjustment. | |
| Gerundive nominalization |
|
write (V) + -ing | Writing is a difficult skill to learn in a new language. |
|
run (V) + -ing | Running is a cardio-heavy exercise. | |
|
cut (V) + -ing | Cutting the grass is fun. |
Zero-derivation nominalization
[edit]Some verbs and adjectives in English can be used directly as nouns without the addition of a derivational suffix, depending on the syntax of a sentence. Zero-derivation nominalization is also called conversion.[9]
| Token | Lexical category | Usage |
|---|---|---|
| change | verb | I will change. |
| change | noun | I need a change. |
| murder | verb | He will murder the man. |
| murder | noun | The murder of the man was tragic. |
Stress- and pronunciation-dependent nominalization
[edit]In addition to true zero-derivation, English also has a number of words which, depending on changes in pronunciation (typically syllable stress), can change functional category to either act as a noun or a verb. One such type, which is rather pervasive, is the change in stress placement from the final syllable of the word to the first syllable (see Initial-stress-derived noun).
| Example: increase | Lexical category | Usage |
|---|---|---|
| (increase, /ˈɪnkriːs/) | noun | Profits have shown a large increase. |
| (increase, /ɪnˈkriːs/) | verb | Profits will continue to increase. |
An additional case is seen with the verb use, which has a different pronunciation when used as a noun. The nominal case of use has a word final voiceless alveolar fricative /s/, while the verbal case of use has a word final voiced alveolar fricative, /z/. Which of two sounds is pronounced is a signal, in addition to the syntactic structure and semantics, as to the lexical category of the word use in the context of the sentence.
| Example: use | Lexical category | Usage |
|---|---|---|
| (use, (use, N, /ˈjuːs/) | noun | The use of forks is dangerous. |
| (use, (use, V, /ˈjuːz/) | verb | Use your fork! |
In some circumstances, adjectives can also have nominal use, as in the poor to mean poor people in general. See nominalized adjective.
Other Indo-European languages
[edit]Many Indo-European languages have separate inflectional morphology for nouns, verbs, and adjectives, but often this is no impediment to nominalization, as the root or stem of the adjective is readily stripped of its adjectival inflections and bedecked with nominal inflections—sometimes even with dedicated nominalizing suffixes. For example, Latin has a number of nominalization suffixes, and some of these suffixes have been borrowed into English, either directly or through Romance languages. Other examples can be seen in German—such as the subtle inflectional differences between deutsch (adj) and Deutsch (noun) across genders, numbers, and cases—although which lexical category came first may be moot. Spanish and Portuguese, whose o/os/a/as inflections commonly mark both adjectives and nouns, shows a very permeable boundary as many roots straddle the lexical categories of adjective and noun (with little or no inflectional difference).
Chinese
[edit]In all varieties of Chinese, particles are used to nominalize verbs and adjectives. In Mandarin, the most common is 的 de, which is attached to both verbs and adjectives. For example, 吃 chī (to eat) becomes 吃的 chīde (that which is eaten). Cantonese uses 嘅 ge in the same capacity, while Minnan uses ê.
Two other particles, found throughout the Chinese varieties, are used to explicitly indicate the nominalized noun as being either the agent or patient of the verb being nominalized. 所 (suǒ in Mandarin) is attached before the verb to indicate patient, e.g. 吃 (to eat) becomes 所吃 (that which is eaten), and 者 (zhě in Mandarin) is attached after the verb to indicate agent, e.g. 吃 (to eat) becomes 吃者 (he who eats). Both particles date from Classical Chinese and retain limited productivity in modern Chinese varieties.
There are also many words with zero-derivation. For instance, 教育 jiàoyù is both a verb (to educate) and a noun (education). Other cases include 变化 biànhuà (v. to change; n. change), 保护 bǎohù (v. to protect; n. protection), 恐惧 kǒngjù (v. to fear; n. fear; adj. fearful), etc.
Vietnamese
[edit]In Vietnamese, nominalization is often implicit with zero derivation, but in formal contexts or where there is a potential for ambiguity, a word can be nominalized by prepending a classifier. Cái, tính (indicating quality) and Sự are the most general classifiers used to nominalize verbs and adjectives, respectively. Other nominalizing classifiers include đồ (indicating object like đồ dùng, đồ chơi, đồ nghề, đồ hiệu, sometimes used a pejorative word like đồ xấu xa, đồ ăn hại), điều, con (indicating an animal, like con gà, con chó, con kiến and can be used a pronoun), nét (indicating the portrait of something or someone, like nét đẹp, nét chữ, nét vẽ, nét ngài nở nang (The tale of Kieu)), vẻ (indicating the form or appearance of something, vẻ đẹp, vẻ bề ngoài, vẻ sang trọng) việc (indicating job, task, affair, like việc làm, việc học, việc đi lại).
Tibeto-Burman
[edit]Nominalization is a pervasive process across Tibeto-Burman languages. In Bodic languages nominalization serves a variety of functions, including the formation of complement clauses and relative clauses.[10][11]
Japanese
[edit]Japanese grammar makes frequent use of nominalization (instead of relative pronouns) via several particles such as の no, もの mono and こと koto. In Old Japanese, nouns were created by replacing the final vowel, such as mura (村, "village") created from muru (群る, "gather"), though this type of noun formation is obsolete.
Dual nature of syntactic nominalization
[edit]Syntactic nominals share some properties with lexically-derived nominals, they must be formed in the syntactic components, consisting of verbal projections. The duality of nominalization in Japanese grammar brings up the issue of whether or not VP (vP) should be postulated for the projection of arguments inside the nominal.[12]
Nominal and verbal properties in Japanese
[edit]Causative, passive, and honorific verb marking inside kata-nominals provide evidence that a vP structure should be postulated.[12]
-kata (-方) 'way' suffixed to the "renyookei" (adverbial) form of a verb:
The syntactic nominals that are shared with ordinary lexical nominals
John-no
John-GEN
hon-no
book-GEN
yomi-kata
read-way
'the way of John's reading a book'
Mary-no
Mary-GEN
butai-de-no
stage-on-GEN
odori-kata
dance-way
'the way of Mary's dancing on the stage'
Nominalized versions
John-ga
John-NOM
hon-o
book-ACC
yon-da.
read-PAST
'John read a book.'
Mary-ga
Mary-NOM
butai-de
stage-on
odot-ta.
dance-PAST
'Mary danced on the stage.'
The arguments of syntactic nominals, just like those of lexical nominals, cannot be marked with a nominative, accusative or dative case. Following are not attested forms in Japanese.
*John-ga
John-NOM
hon-o
book-ACC
yomi-kata
read-way
'the way in which John reads the book'
*John-ga
John-NOM
ronbun-o
paper-ACC
kaki-naosi
write-fixing
'John's rewriting of the paper'
The arguments of these nominals, although both subjects and objects are marked only with genitive cases.
As proven above, syntactic and lexical nominals share some structural similarities. Further analysis reveals that syntactic and constituent (linguistics) at the sentential level are similar as well.[12] This proposes that syntactic nominals are produced at the syntactic level and it can be applied to any clause type. Lexical nominals are created by the lexicon which limits the clauses in which they can be applied.
Hawaiian
[edit]In Hawaiian, the particle ʻana is used to nominalize. For example, "hele ʻana" is Hawaiian for "coming." Hence, "his coming" is "kona hele ʻana."
Zero-derivation in other languages
[edit]A few languages allow finite clauses to be nominalized without morphological transformation. For instance in Eastern Shina (Gultari) the finite clause [mo buje-m] 'I will go' can appear as the nominalized object of the postposition [-jo] 'from' with no modification in form:
[mo
I
buje-m]-jo
go-1sg-from
muçhore
before
ŗo
he
buje-i
go-3sg
"He will go before I go."
Syntactic analyses
[edit]Introduction to syntactic analyses
[edit]The syntactic analysis of nominalization continues to play an important role in modern theory, which dates back to Noam Chomsky's hallmark paper "Remarks on Nominalization". Such remarks promoted the restrictive view of the syntax, as well as the need to separate syntactically-predictable constructions such as gerunds from less predictable formations and specifically-derived nominals.
In the current literature, researchers seem to take one of two stances when proposing a syntactic analysis of nominalization. The first is a lexicalist argument structure approach in which researchers propose that syntactic argument structure (AS) is transferred to the nominal (noun word) from an embedded verb.[13] The second is a structural approach in which researchers analyze the dominance structures of nodes to account for nominalization.[13] An example of a structural analysis is that there must be a VP node within a nominal that accounts for the syntactic argument structure.[13] Both models attempt to explain the ambiguous cases of nominal readings, such as that of “examination,” which can be read both eventively and non-eventively.[13]
Emergence of X'-scheme – Chomsky (1965)
[edit]One of Chomsky's primary concerns at the time was to generate an explanation and understanding for linguistic theory, or "explanatory adequacy." Further insight emerged from the development of the Universal Grammar Theory. The goal of Universal Grammar (UG) is to specify possible languages and provide an evaluation procedure that selects the correct language given primary linguistic data. The further usage of X' theory introduced a new approach in analyzing fixed principles that regulate the range of possible languages and a finite set of rules arranged to acquire a language.[14]
Chomsky and nominalization
[edit]Chomsky's article "Remarks of Nominalization" has been considered a central point of reference in the analysis of nominalization and has been cited in numerous theories of nominalization.[3] In that article, he proposes the Lexicalist hypothesis and explains that most analyses of nominalization across languages assign at least one role to the lexicon in their derivation.[15]
Derived and gerundive nominals
[edit]In his 1970 paper "Remarks on Nominalization," Chomsky introduces two types of nominals that are extremely important for nominalization in English: derived nominals and gerundive nominals.[14] Chomsky describes gerundive nominals as being formed from propositions of subject-predicate form, such as with the suffix “-ing” in English.[14] Gerundive nominals also do not have the internal structure of a noun phrase and so cannot be replaced by another noun.[14] Adjectives cannot be inserted into the gerundive nominal.[14] Chomsky argues that derived nominals in English are too irregular and unpredictable to be accounted for by syntactic rules.[3] He claims that it is impossible to predict whether a derived nominal exists and what affix it takes.[3] In contrast, gerundive nominals are regular and predictable enough to posit a syntactic analysis, as all gerundives are verbs with the affix -ing.[3]
| Gerundive nominal | Example |
|---|---|
| being | Anna's being eager to please |
| refusing | Anna's politely refusing the food |
| criticizing | Anna's criticizing the paper |
Chomsky explains that derived nominals have the internal structure of a noun phrase and can be quite varied and distinctive.[14] For example, in English they can be formed with many different affixes such as -ation, -ment, -al, and -ure.[3] Chomsky also notes that there are many restrictions on the formation of derived nominals.[14]
| Derived nominal | Example |
|---|---|
| eagerness | Anna's eagerness to please |
| refusal | Anna's refusal of the food |
| criticism | Anna's criticism of the paper |
Argument structure analysis – Grimshaw (1994)
[edit]Internal and external arguments
[edit]Predicates, or verb phrases, take arguments (see argument (linguistics)). Broadly, arguments can be divided into two types: internal or external. Internal arguments are those that are contained within the maximal projection of the verb phrase, and there can be more than one of them.[16] External arguments are those that are not contained within the maximal projection of the verb phrase and are typically the "subject" of the sentence.[17]
| Sentence | Internal argument(s) | External argument |
|---|---|---|
| Karen [VP went to the store] | [DP the store] | [DP Karen] |
| Karen [VP drove herself to the store] | [DP herself], [DP the store] | [DP Karen] |
Argument structure theory
[edit]Grimshaw's 1994 analysis of nominalization is based in argument structure theory, which analyzes the argument structures of predicates. She proposes that argument structures have inherent, internal organizations and so there are degrees of prominence of arguments, which distinguish this organization structure. The degrees of prominence are proposed to be determined by the characteristics of the predicates.[18] For the purpose of her analysis, the argument prominence is given as Agent, Experiencer, Goal/Location, and Theme.
This internal structure is posited as a result of extension of the intrinsic semantic properties of the lexical items, and in actuality that theta roles, the aforementioned argument types (agent, experiencer, goal/location, and theme), should be eliminated from any discussion of argument structure because they have no effect on the grammatical representation.[18] Rather, the prominence relationships of those arguments is sufficient for analyzing verbal external arguments. Evidence can be seen with both Japanese and English examples.
Japanese syntactic structures illustrate that there are requirements for the locality of these argument types and so their positions are not interchangeable, and a hierarchy seems to be established.