Zoroastrianism
| Zoroastrianism | |
|---|---|
| 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬯𐬥𐬀 | |
 Faravahar, one of the most prominent symbols of Zoroastrianism, on the Fire Temple of Yazd, Iran | |
| Type | Ethnic religion |
| Classification | Iranian |
| Scripture | Avesta |
| Theology | Monotheism, historically Henotheism or hierarchical polytheism with ethical dualism |
| Region | Greater Iran (historically) |
| Language | Avestan |
| Founder | Zoroaster (traditional) |
| Origin | c. mid-6th century BCE Iranian Plateau |
| Separated from | Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Mazdaism |
| Separations | |
| Number of followers | 130,000 - 2.6 million (Zoroastrians) |
| Part of a series on |
| Zoroastrianism |
|---|
 |
 Religion portal |
Zoroastrianism,[a] also called Mazdayasna[b] and Behdin,[c] is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, Zoroaster (Ancient Greek: Ζωροάστρις, romanized: Zōroastris). Among the world's oldest organized faiths, its adherents exalt an uncreated, benevolent, and all-wise deity known as Ahura Mazda (Avestan: 𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬀⸱ 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬁, lit. 'Lord of Wisdom'), who is hailed as the supreme being of the universe.
In the foundational hymns of Zoroastrianism, the Gathas, the primary dualism is ethical and psychological rather than cosmic, centered on the choice between Asha (truth, order, and cosmic progress) and Druj (chaos, distortion, and the lie). Within this early theological framework, Ahura Mazda is the supreme, transcendent Creator who stands above the conflict. The direct opposition exists between the Twin Mentalities (Mainyu): Spenta Mainyu (the progressive, constructive spirit) and Angra Mainyu (the destructive, regressive spirit), both of whom exercised free will at the beginning of creation.[1]
The concept of a strict, symmetrical cosmic dualism—wherein Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) is elevated to a co-equal, primordial adversary of Ahura Mazda himself—is a later development prominent in non-canonical Middle Persian (Pahlavi) texts like the 9th-century Bundahishn.[2] Furthermore, rather than predicting a passive apocalypse where God single-handedly destroys evil, the Gathas emphasize Frashokereti (the "making fresh" or renovation of the world), a collaborative, evolutionary process achieved through the progressive thoughts, words, and actions of humanity.[3]
Opinions vary among scholars as to whether Zoroastrianism is monotheistic,[4] polytheistic,[5] henotheistic,[6] or a combination of all three.[7] Prominent modern Iranologists and linguists heavily reject the flat imposition of 'monotheism' on early Zoroastrianism. Prods Oktor Skjærvø explicitly excludes monotheism, admitting both ethical dualism and polytheism into the Gathic framework. Furthermore, Almut Hintze and Jean Kellens have documented how using Judeo-Christian parameters to label the faith creates a false, inadequate binary, masking the reality of a multi-divinity henotheistic system where other Gods (Yazatas) are naturally revered alongside the supreme Creator.[8][9]
Originating from Zoroaster's reforms of the ancient Iranian religion, Zoroastrianism began during the Avestan period (possibly as early as the 2nd millennium BCE), but was first recorded in the mid-6th century BCE. For the following millennium, it was the official religion of successive Iranian polities, beginning with the Achaemenid Empire, which formalized and institutionalized many of its tenets and rituals, and ending with the Sasanian Empire, which revitalized the faith and standardized its teachings.[10] In the 7th century CE, the rise of Islam and the ensuing Muslim conquest of Persia marked the beginning of the decline of Zoroastrianism. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims in the nascent Rashidun Caliphate prompted much of the community to migrate to the Indian subcontinent, where they were granted asylum and became the progenitors of today's Parsis. Once numbering in the millions, the world's total Zoroastrian population is estimated to comprise between 110,000 and 120,000 people, with most of them residing either in India (50,000–60,000), in Iran (15,000–25,000), or in North America (22,000). Peer-reviewed research has estimated that there are between 145,000 and 2.6 million Zoroastrians globally.[11][12] Not including self-identification and converts, there are an estimated 130,000 to 140,000 Zoroastrians.[13] The religion is thought to be declining because of restrictions on conversion, strict endogamy, casteism, and low birth rates. The low birth rates are present both among Iranian Zoroastrians and the Parsis.
The central beliefs and practices of Zoroastrianism are contained in the Avesta, a compendium of sacred texts assembled over several centuries. Its oldest and most central component is the Gathas, purported to be the direct teachings of Zoroaster and his account of conversations with Ahura Mazda. These writings are part of a major section of the Avesta called the Yasna, which forms the core of Zoroastrian liturgy. Zoroaster's religious philosophy divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism into emanations of the natural world—the ahura and the daeva; the former class consisting of divinities to be revered and the latter class consisting of divinities to be rejected and condemned. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator and sustaining force of the universe, working in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm) through the Amesha Spenta, a class of seven divine entities that represent various aspects of the universe and the highest moral good. Emanating from Ahura Mazda is Spenta Mainyu (the Holy or Bountiful Spirit), the source of life and goodness,[14] which is opposed by Angra Mainyu (the Destructive or Opposing Spirit), who is born from Aka Manah (evil thought). Angra Mainyu was further developed by Middle Persian literature into Ahriman (Middle Persian: 𐭠𐭧𐭫𐭬𐭭𐭩), Ahura Mazda's direct adversary. The two terms are synonymous.
Zoroastrian doctrine holds that, within this cosmic dichotomy, human beings have the choice between Asha ('truth', 'cosmic order'), the principle of righteousness or "rightness" that is promoted and embodied by Ahura Mazda, and Druj ('falsehood', 'deceit'), the essential nature of Angra Mainyu that expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy.[15] Thus, the central moral precepts of the religion are good thoughts (humata), good words (hukhta), and good deeds (huvarshta), which are recited in many prayers and ceremonies.[16][17][18] Many of the practices and beliefs of ancient Iranian religion can still be seen in Zoroastrianism, such as reverence for nature and its elements, such as water (aban). Fire (atar) is held by Zoroastrians to be particularly sacred as a symbol of Ahura Mazda himself, serving as a focal point of many ceremonies and rituals, and serving as the basis for Zoroastrian places of worship, which are known as fire temples.
Etymology
The name Zoroaster (Ζωροάστηρ) is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra. He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati.[19] The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna, which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna, meaning "worship, devotion".[20] In English, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin, meaning "of the good religion", deriving from beh < Middle Persian weh 'good' + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā".[21] In the Zoroastrian liturgy, this term is used as a title for a lay individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony, in contrast to the priestly titles of osta, osti, ervad (hirbod), mobed and dastur.[22]
The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici.[23] The term Mazdaism (/ˈmæzdə.ɪzəm/) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system.[24]
Theology
The theological category of Zoroastrianism is hard to define. The reasons are the difficulties in assigning precise dates to the principal texts and the fact that many contain much older material. Furthermore, Zoroastrianism shaped only slowly over time and was not complete even by the time of the Muslim conquest of Persia. Polytheistic, monotheistic, and dualistic strands can be identified in the wider Zoroastrian tradition, with dualism being the dominant tendency. The major difference to Manichaeism lies in the insistence of good in the creation account.[25]
Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism started as an Indo-Iranian polytheistic religion: according to Yujin Nagasawa, "like the rest of the Zoroastrian texts, the Old Avesta does not teach monotheism".[26] By contrast, Md. Sayem characterizes Zoroastrianism as being one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world.[27]
Zoroastrians treat Ahura Mazda as the supreme god, but believe in lesser divinities known as yazatas ("beings worthy of worship"), who share some similarities with the angels in Abrahamic religions.[28] These yazatas include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya. Historian Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of the pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures; especially the gods Mithra and Anahita.[29]
Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".[6] Brian Arthur Brown states that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".[30] Economist Mario Ferrero suggests that Zoroastrianism transitioned from polytheism to monotheism due to political and economic pressures.[31]
In the 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their "dualism" and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in the relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity.[32][33]
The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to the status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine (though being re-evaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia).[34] It has been argued by Almut Hintze that this designation of monotheism is not wholly perfect and that Zoroastrianism instead has its "own form of monotheism" which combines elements of dualism and polytheism.[35] Farhang Mehr asserts that Zoroastrianism is principally monotheistic with some dualistic elements.[36]
Lenorant and Chevallier assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having a belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Hinduism.[37][38]
Nature of the divine
 |
Zoroastrianism contains multiple classes of divine beings, typically organized into tiers and spheres of influence.[39]
Ahuras
The class of divine beings known as Ahuras was inherited from the concept of the asura in prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In the Rig Veda, the asuras are the "older gods" who ruled over the primordial chaos of the universe. This includes figures such as "Father Asura", Varuna, and