| Arawak | |
| Nativename: | Arawak: Lokono Dian |
| States: | French Guiana, Guyana, Trinidad, Suriname, Venezuela |
| Region: | Guianas |
| Ethnicity: | Lokono (Arawak) |
| Date: | 1990–2012 |
| Ref: | e25 |
| Familycolor: | arawakan |
| Fam1: | Arawakan |
| Fam2: | Northern |
| Fam3: | Ta-Arawakan |
| Iso2: | arw |
| Iso3: | arw |
| Glotto: | araw1276 |
| Glottorefname: | Lokono |
| Script: | Latin script |
| Map2: | Lang Status 20-CR.svg |
Arawak (Arawak: Arowak, Arawak: Aruák), also known as Lokono (Lokono Dian, literally "people's talk" by its speakers), is an Arawakan language spoken by the Lokono (Arawak) Indigenous peoples of South America in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and French Guiana. It is the eponymous language of the Indigenous Arawakan language family.
Lokono is an active–stative language.[1]
Lokono is a critically endangered language.[2] The Lokono language is most commonly spoken in South America. Some specific countries where this language is spoken include Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Venezuela.[3]
The percentage of living fluent speakers with active knowledge of the language is estimated to be 5% of the ethnic population.[4] There are small communities of semi-speakers who have varying degrees of comprehension and fluency in Lokono that keep the language alive.[5] It is estimated that there are around 2,500 remaining speakers (including fluent and semi-fluent speakers).[6]
The decline in the use of Lokono as a language of communication is due to its lack of transmission from older speakers to the next generation. The language is not being passed to young children, as they are taught to speak the official languages of their countries.
The Lokono language is part of the larger Arawakan language family spoken by indigenous people in South and Central America along with the Caribbean.[7] The family spans four countries of Central America — Belize, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua — and eight of South America — Bolivia, Guyana, French Guiana, Surinam, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil (and also formerly Argentina and Paraguay). With about 40 extant languages, it is the largest language family in Latin America.[8]
Arawak is a tribal name in reference to the main crop food, the cassava root, commonly known as manioc. The cassava root is a popular staple for millions of people in South America, Asia and Africa.[9] It is a woody shrub grown in tropical or subtropical regions. Speakers of Arawak also identify themselves as Arawak: Lokono, which translates as "the people". They call their language Arawak: Lokono Dian, "the people's speech".[10]
Alternative names of the same language include Arawák, Arahuaco, Aruak, Arowak, Arawac, Araguaco, Aruaqui, Arwuak, Arrowukas, Arahuacos, Locono, and Luccumi.[11]
Lokono is an Arawakan language most commonly found to be spoken in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. There are approximately 2,500 native speakers today. The following are regions where Arawak has been found spoken by native speakers.
| Stop | voiceless | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| aspirated | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| voiced | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| Fricative | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||
| Nasal | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||
| Rhotic | trill | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| tap | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||
William Pet observes an additional pronounced as //p// in loanwords.[12]
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| Mid | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| Open | pronounced as /link/ |
Pet notes that phonetic realization of pronounced as //o// varies between [{{IPA link|o}}] and [{{IPA link|u}}].
The Arawak language system has an alphabetical system similar to the Roman Alphabet with some minor changes and new additions to letters.
| b | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| č | ch, tj | pronounced as /link/ | |
| d | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /~/ pronounced as /link/ | ||
| f | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| h | x | pronounced as /link/ | |
| j | y | pronounced as /link/ | |
| k | c, qu | pronounced as /link/ | |
| kh | k, c, qu | pronounced as /link/ | |
| l | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| lh | ř | pronounced as /link/ | |
| m | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| n | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| p | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| r | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| s | z, c | pronounced as /link/ | |
| t | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /~/ pronounced as /link/ | ||
| th | t | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /~/ pronounced as /link/ | |
| hu | w | pronounced as /link/ | |
| ' | pronounced as /link/ |
| a | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| aa | a· | pronounced as /link/ | |
| e | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| ee | e·, e: | pronounced as /link/ | |
| i | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| ii | i·, i: | pronounced as /link/ | |
| o | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /~/ pronounced as /link/ | ||
| oo | o·, o: | pronounced as /link/ | |
| y | u, ɨ | pronounced as /link/ | |
| yy | y:, uu, ɨɨ | pronounced as /link/ |
Arawak verbs are classified either as 'event' or 'non-event' (aka 'stative') verbs. Most stative verbs express adjectival meanings, similarly to in a number of Native American languages, genetic clarification aside. Event verbs require subjects, and may take objects.
There are two exceptional classes of verb - the copula to 'to be' (which has no semantic relation with the article to, aside from that the copula is often omitted around the article), and a dummy verb. This dummy verb "behaves morphologically like an event verb".
The personal pronouns are shown below. The forms on the left are free forms, which can stand alone. The forms on the right are bound forms (prefixes), which must be attached to the front of a verb, a noun, or a postposition.
| Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Person | de, da- | we, wa- | |
| 2nd Person | bi, by- | hi, hy- | |
| 3rd Person | li, ly- (he)tho, thy- (she) | ne, na- |
All verbs are sectioned into transitive, active transitive, and stative intransitive.
| prefixes | suffixes | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | |||
| 1st person | nu- or ta- | wa- | -na, -te | -wa | ||
| 2nd person | (p)i- | (h)i- | -pi | -hi | ||
| 3rd person | ri-, i | na- | ri, -i | -na | ||
| thu-, ru- | na- | -thu,-ru, -u | -na | |||
| 'impersonal' | pa- | - | - | - | ||
O=So= cross referencing suffix
In the Arawak language, there are two distinct genders of masculine and feminine. They are used in cross-referencing affixes, in demonstratives, in nominalization and in personal pronouns. Typical pronominal genders, for example, are feminine and non-feminine. The markers go back to Arawak third-person singular cross-referencing: feminine -(r)u, masculine -(r)i[11]
Arawak Languages do distinguish singular and plural, however plural is optional unless the referent is a person. Markers used are *-na/-ni (animate/human plural) and *-pe (inanimate/animate non-human plural).
Arawak nouns are fragmented into inalienably and alienably possessed. Inalienably crossed nouns include things such as body parts, terms for kinship and common nouns like food selections. Deverbal nominalization belong to that grouping. Both forms of possession are marked with prefixes (A/Sa). Inalienably possessed nouns have what is known as an "unpossessed" form (also known as "absolute") marked with the suffix *-tfi or *-hV. Alienably possessed nouns take one of the suffixes *-ne/ni, *-te, *-re, *i/e, or *-na. All suffixes used as nominalizers.[13]
Arawak languages have a negative prefix ma- and attributive-relative prefix ka-. An example of the use is ka-witi-w ("a woman with good eyes") and ma-witti-w ("a woman with bad eyes", i.e., a blind woman).
Tenses are added at the end of a sentence: past tense is indicated with bura or bora (from ubura "before"), future tense with dikki (from adiki "after"), present continuous tense uses loko or roko.[14] [15]
| English | Eastern Arawak (French Guiana) | Western Arawak (Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| One | Ábą | Aba | |
| Two | Bian | Biama | |
| Three | Kabun | Kabyn | |
| Four | Biti | Bithi | |
| Man | Wadili | Wadili | |
| Woman | Hiaro | Hiaro | |
| Dog | Péero | Péero | |
| Sun | Hadali | Hadali | |
| Moon | Kati | Kathi | |
| Water | Uini | Vuniabu |
