Kerala Explained

Kerala is an Indian state on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act, which unified the country's Malayalam-speaking regions into a single state. Covering, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Laccadive Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants according to the 2011 census, Kerala is the 13th-most populous state in India. It is divided into 14 districts, with Thiruvananthapuram as the capital. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and, along with English, serves as an official language of the state.

Kerala has been a prominent exporter of spices since 3000 BCE. The Chera dynasty, the first major kingdom in the region, rose to prominence through maritime commerce but often faced invasions from the neighbouring Chola and Pandya dynasties. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, initiating European colonisation in India.

After Indian independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin acceded to the newly formed republic and were merged in 1949 to form the state of Travancore-Cochin. In 1956, the modern state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks), and the Kasargod taluk of South Kanara.

Kerala has the highest Human Development Index, at 0.784 in 2018; the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in 2018; the highest life expectancy, at 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio, with 1,084 women per 1,000 men and the lowest positive population growth rate in India (3.44%). It is the least impoverished and the second-most urbanised state in the country. The state has witnessed significant emigration, particularly to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy relies heavily on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate population. Hinduism is practised by more than 54% of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian traditions, shaped over millennia by influences from across India and abroad.

The production of black pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices are important crops. The state has a coastline of 595km (370miles), and 1.1 million people depend on the fishing industry, which accounts for around 3% of the state's income. The economy is largely service sector oriented, while the primary sector contributes a comparatively smaller share. Kerala has the highest media exposure in India, with newspapers published in nine languages, primarily Malayalam and English.

Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches, backwaters, hill stations, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The state has been repeatedly recognised in international travel rankings for its natural landscape and cultural heritage.

Etymology

The word Kerala is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare.^[14] At that time, one of three states in the region was called in Classical Tamil: and are variants of the same word.^[15] The word refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'.^[16] may stem from the Classical Tamil 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'^[17] or 'land of the Cheras'. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word 'coconut tree' and 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',^[18] which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.^[19] Kerala was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles. From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala Male.

Renaming to Keralam

There have been long-standing demands for changing the name to Keralam, the Malayalam name of the state. The Kerala Legislative Assembly passed a unanimous resolution in June 2024 to change the state's name from "Kerala" to "Keralam," following an earlier unanimous resolution in August 2023. Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan had moved both resolutions, which sought to amend the state's name under Article 3 of the Constitution to reflect its Malayali identity.^[20]

The Union Cabinet approved this proposal on February 24, 2026. Following Cabinet approval, the President of India will refer the Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026 to the State Legislative Assembly for expressing its views under the proviso to Article 3 of the Constitution of India.^[21]

After the Kerala Legislative Assembly's approval, this bill will be introduced in the Parliament of India and if passed, the state's name will officially become Keralam.

History

See main article: History of Kerala.

Legend

In stories of the Dashavatara from Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama, the sixth avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu. As a result, Kerala is traditionally referred to as Parashurama Kshetram ("The Land of Parashurama").^[22] According to legend, Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded to the point where it landed. This land that emerged extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari.^[23] The land that emerged was saline and uninhabitable, so Parashurama invoked the snake king Vasuki, who spat holy poison to purify the soil, transforming it into fertile land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as guardians of the land. The legend was expanded and codified in the 17th or 18th century text Keralolpathi. It links the origin of early Kerala institutionssuch as land tenure and administrationto Parashurama's story.^[24] In medieval times, the Chera king Chenkuttuvan may have emulated the Parashurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it.^[25]

A prominent Puranic figure associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an asura and archetypal just king who is said to have ruled the earth from Kerala. He defeated the devas in battle, driving them into exile. In response, the devas appealed to Vishnu, who assumed his fifth avatar as Vamana and, to restore order, pushed Mahabali down to Patala (the netherworld). According to popular belief, Mahabali returns to Kerala once a year, which is commemorated as the Onam festival.^[26] The Matsya Purana, one of the oldest among the 18 Puranas,^{[27] [28]} situates the story of Matsyathe first avatar of Vishnuand king Manu, the first man and ruler of the regionin the Malaya Mountains of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.^{[29] [30]}

Pre-history

A substantial portion of present-day Kerala is believed to have been submerged under the sea in ancient times. The discovery of marine fossils near Changanassery supports this hypothesis.^[31] Prehistoric archaeological discoveries in Kerala include Neolithic-era dolmens in the Marayur region of the Idukki district, locally known as muniyarafrom muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).^[32] Rock engravings in the Edakkal caves in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic period, around 6000 BCE.^{[33] [34]} Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites throughout the region.^[35] These findings indicate that the development of early Kerala society and culture began in the Paleolithic Age and progressed through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic periods.^[36] Foreign cultural interactions also played a role in shaping this development;^[37] some historians suggest possible connections with the Indus Valley Civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.^[38]

Ancient history

Kerala has been a major spice exporter since at least 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records, and it is continues to be referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".^{[39] [40] [41]} The region's spices attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Arabs and Phoenicians also established trade links with Kerala during this period.^[42] The land of Keralaputra was one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during the time of Emperor Ashoka, alongside the Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra kingdoms.^[43] Scholars generally identify Keralaputra as another name for the Cheras, the earliest major dynasty based in Kerala.^{[44] [45]} These southern territories once shared a common language and cultural framework, within a region historically known as Tamilakam.^[46] While the Cheras governed most of what is now Kerala, the southern tip of the region fell under the control of the Pandyas,^[47] whose trading port is sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi).^[48] Later, control of the region alternated among the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. The Ays and Mushikas were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala, located to the south and north of the Chera territory, respectively.^{[49] [50]}

By the last centuries BCE, the coast had become an important hub for Greek and Roman trade, particularly in black pepper. The Cheras maintained commercial links with Ancient China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In foreign trade records, the region was referred to as Male or Malabar.^[51] Principal ports of the time included Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda.^[52] The value of Rome's annual trade with Kerala has been estimated at around 50 million sesterces.^[53] Contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships arriving at Muziris, laden with gold in exchange for pepper. One of the earliest Western traders to navigate the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who made the voyage around 118 or 166 BCE under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman establishments in the region's port citiesincluding a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiersare recorded in the Tabula Peutingeriana, the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.^{[54] [55]}

Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.^[56] The Jewish connection with Kerala is believed to date back to 573 BCE.^{[57] [58] [59]} Arab traders had links with Kerala from at least the 4th century BCE; Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to Jews in Eden.^[52] These Arab traders intermarried with local communities, leading to the formation of the Muslim Mappila community.^[60] In the 4th century CE, some Christians migrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community, which traces its origins to the evangelistic activities of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE.^{[61] [62]} The term Mappilaoriginally an honorific applied to esteemed foreign visitorslater became associated with the descendants of Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigrants, leading to the terms Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas, respectively.^{[63] [64]} According to the traditions of these communities, some of the earliest religious establishments in India were built in Kerala.^[60] These include the Saint Thomas Christian churches,^[65] the Cheraman Juma Masjid (established in 629 CE), India's first mosque,^[66] and the Paradesi Synagogue (built in 1568 CE), the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations.^[67]

Medieval period

A second Chera kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as the Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram, was founded by Kulasekhara Varman and governed over a territory comprising most of present-day Kerala and parts of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early phase of the Kulasekara period, the southern regionfrom Nagerkovil to Thiruvallawas controlled by the Ay dynasty. By the 10th century, however, the Ays had lost their power, and the region was incorporated into the Kulashekara realm.^{[68] [69]} Under Kulashekhara rule, Kerala experienced a flourishing period marked by developments in art, literature, trade, and the Bhakti movement within Hinduism.^[70] It was during this time that a distinct Keralite identity began to emerge, separate from Tamil culture, particularly through linguistic differentiation.^[71] For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into provinces governed by local chieftains called Naduvazhis. Each province was further subdivided into desams, which were overseen by Desavazhis.^[70]

A series of Chera–Chola conflicts in the 11th century disrupted foreign trade through Kerala's ports. During this period, Buddhism and Jainism, which had previously coexisted with Hinduism, declined and eventually disappeared from the region.^[72] Social structures became increasingly rigid, and caste divisions deepened.^[73] The Kulashekhara dynasty ultimately fell in 1102 CE following a combined assault by the Later Pandyas and Later Cholas.^[68] In the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (r. 1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom briefly established a short-lived supremacy over much of southern India. Following his death, and in the absence of a strong central authority, the region fragmented into thirty small, frequently warring principalities. Among the most powerful were the kingdom of Samuthiri (Zamorin) in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the central region. In the 18th century, King Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma of Travancore launched a series of military campaigns and annexed territories up to northern Kerala, establishing Travancore as the dominant power in the region. The Kochi ruler sued for peace, and the Malabar region eventually came under direct British rule until Indian independence in 1947.^{[74] [75]}

Colonial rule

During the High and Late Middle Ages, Arab traders held a maritime monopoly over the spice trade in the Indian Ocean. This dominance was challenged during the European Age of Discovery when the spice tradeparticularly in black pepperbecame a major focus of European commercial activity.^[76] By the 15th century, the Portuguese had begun asserting control over eastern maritime routes, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's arrival at Kappad, near Kozhikode (Calicut), in 1498.^{[77] [78]} The Zamorin of Kozhikode granted the Portuguese permission to trade with his subjects, leading to the establishment of a prosperous Portuguese factory and fort.

However, tensions arose when the Portuguese attacked Arab traders operating under the Zamorin's protection, causing a breakdown in relations. Seizing the opportunity presented by rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi, the Portuguese allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters at Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel), rather than in Kozhikode. Under his administration, the Portuguese consolidated their influence by building several fortifications along the Malabar Coast.^[79] Despite these advances, the Portuguese faced significant resistance from the Zamorin's naval forces, particularly under the command of the Kunjali Marakkarsadmirals of Kozhikodewho launched effective maritime campaigns. This resistance eventually forced the Portuguese to seek a treaty. In 1571, the Zamorin's forces defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Chaliyam Fort, marking a major setback for Portuguese ambitions in the region.^[80]

The Portuguese were eventually supplanted by the Dutch East India Company, which capitalised on ongoing conflicts between the Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control over trade in the region.^[81] However, the Dutch too faced military resistance, most notably from Marthanda Varma of the Travancore royal family. After a decisive Dutch defeat at the Battle of Colachel in 1741,^[82] the Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed in 1753, forcing the Dutch to withdraw from regional political affairs and confining their role to trade.^{[83] [84] [85]} Marthanda Varma continued his military campaigns, establishing Travancore as the preeminent power in Kerala.^[86]

In 1766, Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore, invaded northern Kerala,^[87] and his son and successor, Tipu Sultan, launched military campaigns against the expanding British East India Company. These confrontations contributed to two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars.^{[88] [89]} By the early 1790s, Tipu Sultan was forced to cede the Malabar district and South Kanara to the British, and these regions were annexed into the Madras Presidency of British India in 1792.^{[90] [91] [92]} The British East India Company also secured tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795.^[93] By the end of 18th century, the entirety of Kerala was either directly administered by the British or under their suzerainty.^[94]

In the 20th century, Kerala was the site of several major uprisings during the Indian independence movement. Among the most notable was the 1921 Malabar Rebellion, in which Mappila Muslims of the Malabar region rioted against Hindu zamindars (landlords) and British colonial authorities.^[95] Social reform moments also gained momentum during this period, particularly those challenging caste-based discrimination. A major milestone was the Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 in Travancore, which granted lower-caste Hindus the right to enter temples previously restricted to upper castes.^[96]

State of India

After the Partition of India in 1947 into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the princely states of Travancore and Kochi acceded to the Union of India. On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form Travancore-Cochin.^[97] On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod from the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district, Lakshadweep, Topslip, and the Attappadi forest east of Anakatti), and the state of Travancore-Cochinexcluding four southern taluks (Kanyakumari district and Shenkottai taluks), which were transferred to Tamil Naduwere merged to form the state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act.^{[98] [99] [100]} A Communist-led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad was formed following the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957.^[99] It was among the earliest democratically elected Communist governments in the world, following Communist electoral success in the Republic of San Marino in 1945.^{[101] [102] [103]}

Geography

See main article: Geography of Kerala.

The state is wedged between the Laccadive Sea and the Western Ghats.^[104] Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',^[105] Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of ^[106] and the width of the state varies between 11and.^[107] Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.^[108] Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.^{[109] [110]} A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.^[111] The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,^[112] and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.^{[113] [114]} The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks.^[115] The Western Ghats rise on average to 1500lk=outNaNlk=out above sea level,^[116] while the highest peaks reach around 2500m (8,200feet).^[117] Anamudi in the Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of .^[118] The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites.^[119] The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The Athirappilly Falls, which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India.^[120] It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state. Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala.^[121] The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram (Chaliyar valley at Nilambur), and Palakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka.^[122] Minerals including Ilmenite, Monazite, Thorium, and Titanium, are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.^[123]

Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries,^[124] and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters.^[125] Kuttanad, also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.^{[126] [127]} The country's longest lake Vembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about in area.^[128] Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.^[129] Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar; 244km (152miles), Bharathapuzha; 209km (130miles), Pamba; 176km (109miles), Chaliyar; 169km (105miles), Kadalundipuzha; 130km (80miles), Chalakudipuzha; 130km (80miles), Valapattanam; 129km (80miles) and the Achankovil River; 128km (80miles). The average length of the rivers is 64km (40miles). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.^[130] As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta, they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.^[131] The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami,^[132] and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century.^[133] In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history.^[134]

Climate

With around 120–140 rainy days per year,^[135] Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon.^[136] Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".^[137] The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,^[138] making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.^{[139] [140]} The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.^{[141] [142]} In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.^[143] Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.^[144] Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.^[145] The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.^[146] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.

Flora and fauna

See main article: Flora and fauna of Kerala.

Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.^[147], over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal, and 159 are threatened.^[148] Its 9,400 km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested. Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi Lake, Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands, and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km² of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,^[149] much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling.^[150] Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats.^{[151] [152]} The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur.^[153]

Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds, 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic).^[154] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation, and resource extraction. In the forests, sonokeling, Dalbergia latifolia, anjili, mullumurikku, Erythrina, and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides. Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, Nilgiri tahr, common palm civet, and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in the forests. Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and mugger crocodile. Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon, the great hornbill, Kerala laughingthrush, darter and southern hill myna. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu, Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi; orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus are found.^[155] Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis.^[156]

Divisions, districts and cities

See main article: Administrative divisions of Kerala, Districts of Kerala, List of revenue divisions of Kerala, List of taluks of Kerala and List of cities and towns in Kerala.

See also: Local government in Kerala.

The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala), Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts that serve as administrative regions for taxation and land revenue purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue divisions and 77 taluks, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further subdivided into 1,674 revenue villages.^{[157] [158]}

Since the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, local self-government institutions in Kerala function as the third tier of government, comprising 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, and 941 Grama Panchayats for rural governance, and 87 Municipalities, six Municipal Corporations for urban governance.^[159]

Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry,^[160] though away from it,^[161] is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.^[162]

In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent, which was dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.^[163] The municipalities of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November 1866^{[164] [165] [166]} of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal, Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.^[167] The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962.^[168] There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur, and Kannur.^[169] The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA is the largest urban agglomeration.^[170] According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.^[171]

Government and administration

See main article: Government of Kerala, Kerala Legislative Assembly, Local government in Kerala, List of Departments of the Government of Kerala and Administrative divisions of Kerala.

See also: Politics of Kerala, Political parties in Kerala and Elections in Kerala.

The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy. Kerala has a unicameral legislature. The Kerala Legislative Assembly also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms.^[172] The state elects 20 members to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house.^[173]

The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term.^[174] The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the legislative assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers is appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by the Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary, who is usually an officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). The Additional Chief Secretaries/Principal Secretaries serve as the administrative heads of the department to which they are assigned. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary, and other supporting officials, who assist the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary or Principal Secretary in carrying out departmental functions and ensuring effective coordination.

Each secretariat department is in charge of a number of line departments. The executive departments or agencies (known as directorates, commissionerates, and similar entities) are responsible for implementing government policies and carrying out work at the field level. These entities are headed by a Director, Commissioner, Chief, or Director General, who functions as the Head of Department. Each of these sectoral development departments has its owns administrative subdivisions.^[175]

The state is divided into fourteen districts, each headed by a District Collector appointed by the government. The District Collector is responsible for land revenue administration, disaster management, elections, maintenance of law and order, and coordination of various government departments within the district. For administrative convenience, each district is further divided into revenue divisions, taluks, and revenue villages, primarily for the purpose of land revenue administration.^[176]

The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts.^[177] The High Court, located in Kochi,^[178] has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices .^[179] The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.^{[180] [181]} The state's subordinate judiciary consists of District Courts in each of the 14 districts, headed by District Judges, along with civil courts (Munsiff and Senior Civil Judges) and criminal courts (Judicial Magistrates, Chief Judicial Magistrates, and Sessions Courts) handling cases according to their jurisdiction.

Local government

See main article: Local government in Kerala.

In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by the union government.^{[182] [183]} The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and the Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a three-tier system for rural governance and a single-tier system for urban governance.^{[184] [185]}

The rural governance three-tier structure consists of Gram Panchayats, Block Panchayats, and District Panchayats.^[186] The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 define clear powers for these institutions. For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act provides a single-tier system, comprising Municipalities and Municipal Corporations, which are responsible for local governance and civic administration. These bodies are regularly constituted through local body elections.^[187] These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization. Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.^[188] Kerala has 1,200 local bodies, including 941 Gram Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 14 District Panchayats, 87 Municipalities, and 6 Municipal Corporations.^[189]

Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International, is considered the least corrupt state in India.^{[190] [191]} The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.^[192]

Politics

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is the Leader of the Opposition. According to the Constitution of India, Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to residents.^[193]

Renaming to "Keralam"

There have been long-standing demands for changing the name to Keralam, the Malayalam name of the state. The Kerala Legislative Assembly passed a unanimous resolution in June 2024 to change the state's name from "Kerala" to "Keralam," following an earlier unanimous resolution in August 2023. Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan had moved both resolutions, which sought to amend the state's name under Article 3 of the Constitution to reflect its Malayalam identity.^[20]

The Union Cabinet approved this proposal on February 24, 2026. Following Cabinet approval, the President of India will refer the Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026 to the State Legislative Assembly for expressing its views under the proviso to Article 3 of the Constitution of India.^[21]

After Kerala Niyamasabha's approval, this bill will be introduced in Parliament of India and after being passed, the state's name will officially become Keralam.

Economy

See main article: Economy of Kerala.

After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy.^[194] The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.^[195] In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of .^[196] In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA, compared to 28% by secondary sector, and 8% by primary sector.^[197] In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.

The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon hospitality industry, tourism, Ayurveda and medical services, pilgrimage, information technology, transportation, financial sector, and education.^[198] Major initiatives under the industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard, shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon cash crops. Kerala produces a significant amount of the national output of cash crops such as coconut, tea, coffee, pepper, natural rubber, cardamom, and cashew in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s.

Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.^[199] The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.^[200] In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over, amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about .^[201] Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.^[202]

As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.^[203] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.^[204] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;^[205] chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%,^[206] as was the practice of Nokku kooli, "wages for looking on".^[207] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.^[208]

The state's budget of 2020–2021 was .^[209] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to in 2020–21; up from in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.^[210] A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over .^[211] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.^[212]

The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government-owned financial institution in the state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.^{[213] [214]} In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).^[215] A package of was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.^[216] The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.^[217] Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram is the largest shopping mall in India.^[218]

Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.^[219]

Industries

Traditional industries manufacturing items; coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people.^[220] Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859–60.^[221] The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by SIDBI, there are micro, small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing people.^{[222] [223]} The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.^[224] A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.^[225] Other major sectors are tourism, medical sector, educational sector, banking, ship building, oil refinery, infrastructure, manufacturing, home gardens, animal husbandry and business process outsourcing.

Agriculture

The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.^[226] Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.^{[227] [228]} Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.^[229] Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least corresponding rate in India.

Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper^[230] and accounts for 85% of the natural rubber in the country.^{[231] [232]} Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg are the main agricultural products.^{[233] [234] [235] [236] [237]} Around 80% of India's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam.^[238] The key cash crop is coconut and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India. Around 90% of the total Cardamom produced in India is from Kerala. India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world. About 20% of the total Coffee produced in India are from Kerala. The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.^[239] Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.^[240]

Fisheries

With 590lk=outNaNlk=out of coastal belt,^[241] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources^[242] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,^[243] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.^[244] According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.^[245] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala. During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara.^{[246] [247]} The waters provide a large variety of fish: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%.^[248] Around 1050,000 (1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590km (370miles) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.

Transportation

Roads

See main article: Roads in Kerala.

See also: Kerala State Road Transport Corporation.

Kerala has 331904km (206,236miles) of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.^[249] This translates to about 9.94km (06.18miles) of road per thousand people, compared to an average of 4.87km (03.03miles) in the country. Roads in Kerala include 1812km (1,126miles) of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, 4342km (2,698miles) of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, 27470km (17,070miles) of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, 33201km (20,630miles) of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and 158775km (98,658miles) of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.^[250] Kottayam has the maximum length of roads among the districts of Kerala, while Wayanad accounts for minimum. Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the NH 66 (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.^[251] New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under KIIFB.^[252] National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1622km (1,008miles)) connects Kanyakumari to Mumbai; it enters Kerala via Talapady in Kasargod and passes through Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Guruvayur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram before entering Tamil Nadu. Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, Walayar, is on NH 544, in the border town between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.^[253]

The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.^[254] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.^{[255] [256]} Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.^[257] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45m (148feet) wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, 60m (200feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.^{[258] [259]} The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.^[260], Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.^[261]

Railways

See main article: List of Railway Stations in Kerala.

See also: Kochi Metro. Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad.^[262] The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the Southern Railway; Thiruvananthapuram Railway division headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram and Palakkad Railway Division headquartered at Palakkad.^[263] Thiruvananthapuram Central (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.^[264] Kerala's major railway stations are:

Airports

See main article: List of airports in Kerala state.

Kerala has four international airports: Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.^[265] Kannur had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when Tata airlines operated weekly flights between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at Goa and Kannur.^[266] Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the Airport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India. Calicut International Airport, which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the Malabar region.^[267] Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh busiest in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy^[268] and has won the coveted Champion of the Earth award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations.^[269] Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.^[270] Other than civilian airports, Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.

Water transport

See main article: Ports in Kerala.

See also: Kochi Water Metro. Kerala has two major ports, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports, 4 of which have immigration checkpoint facilities.^{[271] [272]} The major port in the state is at Kochi, which has an area of 8.27 km². The Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram, which is currently classified as a major port, only completed Phase I as others are under construction. Other intermediate ports include Beypore, Kollam, and Azheekal. The remaining ports are classified as minor which include Manjeshwaram, Kasaragod, Nileshwaram, Kannur, Thalassery, Vadakara, Ponnani, Munambam, Manakodam, Alappuzha, Kayamkulam, Neendakara, and Valiyathura. The Kerala Maritime Institute is headquartered at Neendakara, which has an additional subcentre at Kodungallur too. The state has numerous backwaters, which are used for commercial inland navigation. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is .^[273] The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.

Kerala also have India's first water metro, called 'Kochi water metro'.^[274] The Kochi water metro project identified 15 routes, connecting 10 islands along a network of routes that span 78 km with a fleet of 78 fast, and fully electrically propelled hybrid ferries .^[275]

The long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting Kasaragod to Poovar. It is divided into five sections: long Kasaragod-Nileshwaram reach, long Nileshwaram-Kozhikode reach, Kozhikode-Kottapuram reach, long National Waterway 3 (Kottapuram-Kollam reach), and long Kollam-Vizhinjam reach. The Conolly Canal, which is a part of the West-Coast Canal, connects the city of Kozhikode with Kochi through Ponnani, passing through the districts of Malappuram and Thrissur. It begins at Vadakara. It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then District collector of Malabar, H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to Kallayi Port from the hinterlands of Malabar through Kuttiady and Korapuzha river systems.^[276] It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through Ponnani, for more than a century. Other important waterways in Kerala include the Alappuzha-Changanassery Canal, Alappuzha-Kottayam-Athirampuzha Canal, and Kottayam-Vaikom Canal.

Demographics

See main article: Demographics of Kerala.

See also: Ethnic groups in Kerala and List of people from Kerala. Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km², its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km².^[277], Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.^[278] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one-third of the all-India average of 17.6%. Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km², 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km², leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.^[279] Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India.^[280] Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali. The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.^[281]

Gender

There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.^[282] As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.^[283] Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,^[284] which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable sex ratio, contributed to it.^[285]

Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men. While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts, etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences social mobility.^{[286] [287] [288]}

LGBT rights

Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in India.^[289] Kerala is one of the first states in India to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free sex reassignment surgery through government hospitals.^{[290] [291] [292]} Queerala is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.^[293] Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.^[294]

In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.^{[295] [296]}

Human Development Index

See also: Kerala Model. Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.^[297], Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.^[298] It was 0.790 in 2007–08^[299] and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries. Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education, health care and the elimination of poverty from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;^{[300] [301]} the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.^{[302] [303]} However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state. Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India.^[304]

According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India.^[305] In the Kottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%.^{[306] [307]} The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India .^[308] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.^[309] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.^[310] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.^{[311] [312]} This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.^[313] Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India's Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy.^{[314] [315]}

Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway. In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60. In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.^[316]

In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.^[317] According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All districts except Malappuram district had fertility rates below 2. Fertility rate is highest in Malappuram district (2.2) and lowest in Pathanamthitta district (1.3).^[318] In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.^[319] The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)^[320] Transparency International (2005)^[321] and India Today (1997).^[322] Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.^[323] In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, child marriage,^[324] complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported. The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriages and the number of such cases is increasing in Malappuram. Child marriages are particularly higher among the Muslim community.^{[325] [326]} In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.^[327]

In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.^[328] Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,^[329] and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.^[330] The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only to Punjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.^[331]

Healthcare

See also: List of government hospitals in Kerala. Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the universal health care program.^[332] The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12 to 14^[333] deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.^[334] According to a study commissioned by Lien Foundation, a Singapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.^[335] However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively . Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first world nations. Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers.^[336] As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.^[337]

The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breastfeeding over formulas.^{[338] [339]} Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% of births being in medical facilities.^[279] Ayurveda,^[340] siddha, and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.^[341] These propagate via gurukula discipleship, and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments. The Arya Vaidya Sala established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier at Kottakkal (about 10 km from Malappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.^{[342] [343] [344]} It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.

In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.^[345] People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of cancers, liver and kidney diseases.^[346] In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations have stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.^[347] As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the Department of Health Services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.^[348]

Language

Malayalam is the official language of Kerala and one of the Classical languages of India.^{[349] [350]} There is a significant Tamil population throughout Kerala mainly in Idukki district and Palakkad district in which it accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% respectively of the two districts' populations.^[351] Tulu and Kannada are spoken mainly in the northern parts of Kasaragod district, each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.^[352]

Religion

See main article: Religion in Kerala.

Kerala is very religiously diverse with Hindus, Muslims and Christians having a significant population throughout the state. Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.^{[353] [354]} Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant numbers of adherents to Islam and Christianity. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.^[355] According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.^[356] Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims.^[357] Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.^[358] As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total childbirths in the state, respectively.^[359]

Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.^{[360] [361]} Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the mythical Hindu king who moved to Arabia to meet Muhammad and converted to Islam.^{[362] [363] [364]} Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala.^{[365] [366]} According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (–632).^{[367] [368] [369] [370]}

Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of Thomas the Apostle, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ.^{[371] [372] [373] [374]} Saint Thomas Christians include Syro-Malabar Catholic,^[375] Syro-Malankara Catholic,^[376] Jacobite Syrian Christian Church,^[377] Mar Thoma Syrian Church,^[378] Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church,^[379] the Syrian Anglicans of the CSI^[380] and Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians.^[381] The origin of the Latin Catholic Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese Padroado in the 16th century.^{[382] [383] [384]} As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of Anglo-Indians in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.^[385]

Judaism reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of King Solomon.^[386] They are called Cochin Jews or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of Jews in India.^{[387] [388]} There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them migrated to Israel.^[389] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth.^[390] Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district.^{[391] [392]}

Education

See main article: Education in Kerala.

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.^[393] In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the Church Mission Society missionaries to promote mass education.^{[394] [395] [396] [397] [398]} Following the recommendations of the Wood's despatch of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives. Catholic institutions such as St Thomas College Thrissur and SB College Changanasserry were established under the leadership of the Catholic Church. The efforts by leaders such as Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara, Mar Charles Lavigne SJ, Vaikunda Swami, Narayana Guru and Ayyankali in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Educational Society, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.^[399]

In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.^[400] In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.^[401], enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.^[402] According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.^[403] In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its Athulyam literacy programme.^[404]

The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as 4+3+3, which signifies the number of years for each stage. After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce, or science. The majority of public schools are affiliated with the Kerala Board of Public Examination.^[405] Other educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS).^[406]

Culture

See main article: Culture of Kerala.

The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of Indian culture.^[407] It is a synthesis of Aryan, Dravidian, Arab, and European cultures,^[408] developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.^[409] It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people.^[410] It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.^[411] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions. Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.^[412] The Malayalam calendar, a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,^[413] finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.^[414] Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's official language.^[415] Over a dozen other scheduled and unscheduled languages are also spoken.^[416] Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.^[417]

Festivals

See main article: Temple Festivals of Kerala and Onam.

Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.^[418] A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.^[419] Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram.^[420] "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.^[421] Other known festivals are Makaravilakku,^[422] Chinakkathoor Pooram, Attukal Pongala and Nenmara Vallangi Vela^[423] Other than these, festivals locally known as utsavams are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.^[424] Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam or Panchavadyam.^[425] Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like Christmas and Easter are observed by the Christians.^[426] Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.^{[427] [428]} It is a local festival of Kerala^[429] consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.^[430] Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)^[431] and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King Mahabali.^[432] The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as Vallam Kali,^[433] Pulikali,^[434] Pookkalam,^[435] Thumbi Thullal^[436] and Onavillu.^[437]

Music and dance

See main article: Arts of Kerala and Music of Kerala.

Kerala is home to a number of performance arts. These include five classical dance forms: Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Koodiyattom, Thullal and Krishnanattam, which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.^[438] Kerala natanam, Thirayattam,^[439] Kaliyattam, Theyyam, Koothu and Padayani are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.^[440] Some traditional dance forms such as Oppana and Duffmuttu were popular among the Muslims of the state,^[441] while Margamkali and Parichamuttukali are popular among the Syrian Christians and Chavittu nadakom is popular among the Latin Christians.^{[442] [443]} The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.^[444] The development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century. Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances.^[445] Melam, including the paandi and panchari variants, is a more percussive style of music;^[446] it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instruments. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter. Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.^[447]

Cinema

See main article: Malayalam cinema.

Malayalam films carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.^{[448] [449]} Directors from Kerala, like Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mankada Ravi Varma, G. Aravindan, Bharathan, P. Padmarajan, M.T. Vasudevan Nair, K.G. George, Priyadarshan, John Abraham, Ramu Karyat, K S Sethumadhavan, A. Vincent and Shaji N Karun have made a considerable contribution to the Indian parallel cinema. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as Mohanlal, Mammootty, Satyan, Prem Nazir, Madhu, Sheela, Sharada, Miss Kumari, Jayan, Adoor Bhasi, Seema, Bharath Gopi, Thilakan, Vijaya Raghavan, Kalabhavan Mani, Indrans, Shobana, Nivin Pauly, Sreenivasan, Urvashi, Manju Warrier, Suresh Gopi, Jayaram, Murali, Shankaradi, Kavya Madhavan, Bhavana Menon, Prithviraj, Parvathy, Jayasurya, Dulquer Salmaan, Oduvil Unnikrishnan, Jagathy Sreekumar, Nedumudi Venu, KPAC Lalitha, Innocent and Fahadh Faasil. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.^[450] Since the 1980s, actors Mohanlal and Mammootty have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting.^[451] Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as K. J. Yesudas, K.S. Chitra, M.G. Sreekumar, Vayalar Rama Varma, V. Madhusoodanan Nair, M.T. Vasudevan Nair and O.N.V. Kurup,^[452] the last two mentioned being recipients of Jnanpith award, the highest literary award in India.^[453] Resul Pookutty, who is from Kerala, is the only Indian to win an Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing, for the breakthrough film Slumdog Millionaire. As of 2018, Malayalam cinema has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the National Film Awards, India.

Literature

See main article: Malayalam Literature.

The Sangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam. Malayalam literature starts from the Old Malayalam period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),^{[454] [455]} and the 16th-century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry.^[456] For the first 600 years of Malayalam calendar, the literature mainly consisted of the oral Ballads such as Vadakkan Pattukal in North Malabar and Thekkan Pattukal in Southern Travancore. Designated a "Classical Language in India" in 2013,^[349] it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets Cherusseri Namboothiri,^[457] Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, and Poonthanam Nambudiri,^[458] in the 15th and the 16th centuries of Common Era.^{[459] [460]} Unnayi Variyar,^[461] a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, and Kunchan Nambiar, a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form. The Bharathappuzha river, also known as River Ponnani, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.^[462]

Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.^{[463] [464] [465]} The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam): Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.^{[466] [467] [468]} The poets like Moyinkutty Vaidyar and Pulikkottil Hyder have made notable contributions to the Mappila songs, which is a genre of the Arabi Malayalam literature.^{[469] [470]} The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785.^{[471] [472]} The prose literature, Malayalam journalism, and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century. Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards political radicalism.^[473] Malayalam literature has been presented with 6 Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.^{[474] [475]} In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, O. N. V. Kurup, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.^{[476] [477] [478] [479] [480]} Later, writers like O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, Arundhati Roy, Vaikom Muhammed Basheer, have gained international recognition.^{[481] [482] [483] [484]}

Cuisine

See main article: Cuisine of Kerala.

Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.^[485] Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.^[486] A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (idli, dosa, puttu, pathiri, appam, or idiyappam), tapioca preparations, or pulse-based vada.^[487] These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payar pappadam, appam, chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry. Porotta and Biryani are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar.^[488] Sadhya is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.^[489] Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, Achappam, Unni appam and kuzhalappam.^{[490] [491] [492]} Seafood specialties include karimeen, prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.^[493] Thalassery Cuisine is varied and is a blend of many influences.

Media

See main article: Media in Kerala.

The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI).^[494] The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the highest media exposure in India.^[495] Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,^[496] but principally Malayalam and English.^[497] Kerala has the highest media exposure in India.^{[498] [499]} The most widely circulated Malayalam-language newspapers are Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Deshabhimani, Madhyamam, Kerala Kaumudi, Mangalam, Chandrika, Deepika, Janayugam, Janmabhumi, Siraj Daily and Suprabhaatham. Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu, Vanitha, India Today Malayalam, Madhyamam Weekly, Grihalakshmi, Dhanam, Chithrabhumi and Bhashaposhini. DD Malayalam is a state-owned television broadcaster. Multiple-system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian languages, and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are Asianet, Asianet News, Asianet Plus, Asianet Movies, Surya TV, Surya Movies, Mazhavil Manorama, Manorama News, Kairali TV, Kairali News, Flowers, Media One TV, Mathrubhumi News, Kappa TV, Amrita TV, Reporter TV, Jaihind, Janam TV, Jeevan TV, Kaumudy TV and Shalom TV. With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India,^[500] Digital media including social media and OTT services are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. A sizeable people's science movement has taken root in the state, and activities like writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.^[501] BSNL, Airtel, Vodafone Idea Limited, Jio are the major cell phone service providers.^[502] Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major Internet service providers are BSNL, Asianet Satellite Communications, Airtel, Vodafone Idea Limited, RailWire, and Tata Communications.

Sports

See main article: Sports in Kerala.

By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala had either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.^[503] However, Kalaripayattu, regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.^[504] Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.

Cricket and football became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like Tinu Yohannan, Abey Kuruvilla, Chundangapoyil Rizwan, Sreesanth, Sanju Samson and Basil Thampi found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the Kochi Tuskers, played in the Indian Premier League's fourth season. However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises.^{[505] [506]} Kerala has only performed well recently in the Ranji Trophy cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history.^[507] Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts Kerala Blasters FC in the Indian Super League. The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most-followed football club from Asia in social media.^{[508] [509] [510]} Also, Kozhikode hosts Gokulam Kerala FC in the I-League as well as the Sait Nagjee Football Tournament. Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, U. Sharaf Ali, Jo Paul Ancheri, Ashique Kuruniyan, Muhammad Rafi, Jiju Jacob, Mashoor Shereef, Pappachen Pradeep, C.K. Vineeth, Anas Edathodika, Sahal Abdul Samad, and Rino Anto.^{[511] [512] [513] [514] [515]} The Kerala state football team has won the Santhosh Trophy seven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times.^[516]

Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are P. T. Usha, Shiny Wilson and M.D. Valsamma, all three of whom are recipients of the Padma Shri as well as Arjuna Award, while K. M. Beenamol and Anju Bobby George are Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and Arjuna Award winners. T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Sinimol Paulose, Angel Mary Joseph, Mercy Kuttan, K. Saramma, K. C. Rosakutty, Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.^[517] Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.^[518] Jimmy George was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.^[519] Other popular sports include badminton, basketball and kabaddi.^[520] The Indian Hockey team captain P. R. Shreejesh, ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include K. T. Irfan.^[521]

For the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India, the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi), was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in India.^[522] Greenfield International Stadium at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including 2015 SAFF Championship.^[523]

Tourism

See main article: Tourism in Kerala.

Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, National Geographic's Traveller magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"^{[524] [525] [526]} and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".^[527] Travel and Leisure also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".^[528] In 2012, it overtook the Taj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.^[529] CNN Travel listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.^[530] Kerala was named by TIME magazine in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.^[531] In 2025, Kerala was ranked 16th in the Rough Guides' list of the “World’s Top 26 Destinations for 2026”, making it the only Indian state to be included in the international travel guide’s annual global destinations ranking.^[532]

Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions^[533] and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.^[534] The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.^{[535] [536]} Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.^[537] In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.^[524] Marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.^[538] Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline Kerala, God's Own Country. Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.^[539] In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.^[540]

Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department. Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.^[541] The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, growing at the rate of 13.3%.^[542] The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times^[543] Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.

The state's only drive-in beach, Muzhappilangad Beach in Kannur, which stretches across of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches in the world in 2016.^[544] Idukki Dam, the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at Idukki. The major beaches are at Kovalam, Varkala, Kozhikode, Fort Kochi, Cherai, Alappuzha, Ponnani, Kadalundi, Tanur, Chaliyam, Payyambalam, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal. Popular hill stations are at Ponmudi, Wayanad, Vagamon, Munnar, Peermade, Ramakkalmedu, Arimbra, Paithalmala of Kannur district, Kodikuthimala, and Nelliampathi.^[545] Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna.^[546] Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: Periyar Tiger Reserve, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary, Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, and Silent Valley National Park are the most popular among them.^[547] The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, Kumarakom, Ponnani, Nileshwaram, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), Pathiramanal a small island in Muhamma. Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace are two nearby heritage sites.^{[548] [549]}

See also

• Outline of Kerala
• South India
• Dravidian peoples
• List of municipal corporations in Kerala
• List of taluks of Kerala
• List of urban local bodies in Kerala
• List of districts of Kerala
• List of revenue divisions of Kerala
• Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

Notes

Sources

• Book: Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 . Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited . 2018 . . Chandran . V. P. . . Malayalam .

Further reading

• Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.
• 7510531 . 2021 . Chathukulam . Jos . Tharamangalam . Joseph . The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy . World Development . 137 . 105207 . 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207 . 32989341.
• The 'Kudumbashree Woman' and the Kerala Model Woman: Women and Politics in Contemporary Kerala . 10.1177/0971521516656077 . 2016 . Devika . J. . Indian Journal of Gender Studies . 23 . 3 . 393–414 . 151752480. subscription .
• Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the "Kerala Model" . 40023536 . Jeffrey . Robin . Pacific Affairs . 2004 . 77 . 4 . 647–664.
• Testing Concepts about Print, Newspapers, and Politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009 . 10.1017/S0021911809000679 . 146795894 . 2009 . Jeffrey . Robin . The Journal of Asian Studies . 68 . 2 . 465.
• Book: Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model' . 978-1-349-12252-3 . Jeffrey . Robin . 27 July 2016 . Springer.
• Book: Ramanathaiyer . Sundar . Stewart . MacPherson . Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality? . 2nd . Routledge . 2018.

External links

Government

• Official website of the Government of Kerala
• Official website of Kerala Tourism

General information

Notes and References

1. Web site: About Kerala . 10 March 2025 . en-US .
2. Web site: Kerala Physiography Geographical location Kerala Kerala . 24 March 2023 . en-US . 24 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230324220056/https://kerala.me/geography . live .
3. Web site: Anamudi – Peakbagger.com . 24 March 2023 . www.peakbagger.com . 24 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230324210042/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10664 . live .
4. Web site: Kuttanadan.com : Explore the Rice Bowl of Kerala . 24 March 2023 . Kuttanadan Website . en-US . 24 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230324210043/https://kuttanadan.com/ . live .
5. Book: Population Projections for India and States, 2011–2036 . July 2020 . 25 March 2023 . 13 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230313055356/https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/library/resource/population-projections-for-india-and-states-2011-2036/ . live .
6. Web site: Indian state of Kerala to be renamed Keralam to reflect local pronunciation. Penelope. MacRae. 25 February 2026. The Guardian.
7. Web site: 29 May 2025 . President Withholds Assent to Kerala Government's Malayalam Language Bill . 24 June 2025 . The Wire.
8. Web site: MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India. 15 March 2021. 28 March 2021.
9. Web site: India: Subnational HDI . Global Data Labs . 8 June 2025.
10. Book: Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024) . 23 September 2024 . National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India . A-10 . Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6)).
11. Web site: 1 December 2017 . State Symbols of India . https://web.archive.org/web/20210415100206/http://wiienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/state_symbols_india_8411.aspx . 15 April 2021 . 3 June 2022 . ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas.
12. News: Jacob . Aneesh . 'Budha Mayoori' to be named Kerala's state butterfly . en . Mathrubhumi . dead . 30 March 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190330094056/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/technology/science/budha-mayoori-to-be-named-kerala-s-state-butterfly-1.3305480 . 30 March 2019.
13. News: 17 March 2018 . Jackfruit to be Kerala's state fruit; declaration on March 21 . . . 22 March 2018 . 22 March 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180322144926/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/jackfruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-march-21-5101170/ . live .
14. Book: P. C. Alexander . Buddhism in Kerala . 23.
15. Book: Nicasio Silverio Sainz . Cuba y la Casa de Austria . Ediciones Universal . 1972 . 120 . 6 January 2013.
16. Book: John R. Marr . The Eight Anthologies: A Study in Early Tamil Literature . Institute of Asian Studies . 1985 . 263.
17. Book: Rayson K. Alex . Culture and Media: Ecocritical Explorations . S. Susan Deborah . Sachindev P.S. . Cambridge Scholars Publishing . 2014 . 978-1-4438-6190-8 . 226.
18. Book: S. N. Sadasivan . A Social History of India . APH Publishing . 2000 . 978-8176481700 . 101.
19. Book: Victor R. Preedy . Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention . Ronald Ross Watson . Vinood B. Patel . Academic Press . 2011 . 978-0-12-375689-3 . 400.
20. Web site: TNIE online desk . Agencies . Ahead of polls, Union Cabinet approves Kerala's renaming to 'Keralam' . The New Indian Express . 2026-02-24 . 2026-02-24.
21. Web site: Kerala will now be called Keralam . India Today . 2026-02-24 . 2026-02-24.
22. S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p.18
23. Book: Aiya VN . The Travancore State Manual. Travancore Government Press . 210–212 . 1906 . 12 November 2007 .
24. Book: M. T. Narayanan. Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar. 28 July 2012. 1 January 2003. Northern Book Centre. 978-81-7211-135-9. 16–18.
25. Book: Srinivisa Iyengar, P. T. . History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. . Asian Educational Services . 1929 . 978-8120601451 . Madras . 515.
26. Book: Robin Rinehart. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. 28 July 2012. 2004. ABC-CLIO. 978-1-57607-905-8. 146.
27. Book: Goldberg, Ellen. The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. 2002. SUNY Press. 978-0-7914-5325-4. 20. 30 May 2015.
28. Book: Kemmerer, Lisa. Animals and World Religions. 2011. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-991255-1. 78. 30 May 2015.
29. Book: Dalal, Roshen. Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. 2011. Penguin Books India. 978-0-14-341421-6. 250. 30 May 2015.
30. Book: Ragozin, Zenaide A.. Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda. 2005. Kessinger Publishing. 978-1-4179-4463-7. 341. 21 March 2013.
31. Book: A. Sreedhara Menon. A Survey of Kerala History. 27 July 2012. 1 January 2007. DC Books. 978-81-264-1578-6. 20–21.
32. News: Unlocking the secrets of history . Chennai, India . The Hindu . 6 December 2004 . 12 November 2015.
33. Book: Subodh Kapoor. The Indian Encyclopaedia. 1 August 2012. 1 July 2002. Cosmo Publications. 978-81-7755-257-7. 2184.
34. Web site: Travel and Tourism. kerala.gov.in. Government of Kerala. 12 November 2015.
35. Book: Udai Prakash Arora. A. K. Singh. Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology. 6 October 2012. 1 January 1999. Anamika Publishers & Distributors. 978-81-86565-44-5. 116.
36. Book: Udai Prakash Arora. A. K. Singh. Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology. 6 October 2012. 1 January 1999. Anamika Publishers & Distributors. 978-81-86565-44-5. 118, 123.
37. Book: Udai Prakash Arora. A. K. Singh. Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology. 6 October 2012. 1 January 1999. Anamika Publishers & Distributors. 978-81-86565-44-5. 123.
38. News: Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala . The Hindu . 29 September 2009 . 12 November 2015.
39. News: Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link . Kaavya . Pradeep Kumar . The Hindu . 28 January 2014 . 12 November 2015.
40. https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC Striving for sustainability, environmental stress and democratic initiatives in Kerala
41. News: Route it through the seas . The Hindu . December 2016 . 2024-01-08 . 5 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220305035957/https://www.thehindu.com/children/ROUTE-it-through-the-seas/article16735515.ece . live . Subramanian . Archana .
42. Book: A Sreedhara Menon. A Survey Of Kerala History. 10 October 2012. 1 January 2007. DC Books. 978-81-264-1578-6. 57–58.
43. Book: Vincent A. Smith. A. V. Williams Jackson. History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great. 1 August 2012. 30 November 2008. Cosimo, Inc.. 978-1-60520-492-5. 166.
44. Book: The Cambridge Shorter History of India. 10 October 2012. CUP Archive. 193. GGKEY:2W0QHXZ7K40.
45. Book: Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi. Evolution of Education Thought in India. 10 October 2012. 1 January 1994. Northern Book Centre. 978-81-7211-059-8. 164.
46. Book: Kanakasabhai, V. . The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago . 1997 . Asian Educational Services . 978-81-206-0150-5 . 16 June 2009.
47. Book: Upinder Singh. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. 10 October 2012. 2008. Pearson Education India. 978-81-317-1677-9. 385.
48. Book: History of ancient geography – Google Books . James Oliver Thomson. Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1948. 30 July 2009. 978-0-8196-0143-8. 1948.
49. Book: S. S. Shashi. Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. 10 October 2012. 1996. Anmol Publications. 978-81-7041-859-7. 1207.
50. Book: Murkot Ramunny. Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy. 10 October 2012. 1 January 1993. Northern Book Centre. 978-81-7211-052-9. 3.
51. Web site: Malaya: What's in the name . siamese-heritage.org . 7 August 2012 . Joseph Minattur . 1.
52. Book: K. K. Kusuman . A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore . Mittal Publications . 1987 . 978-81-7099-026-0 . 1–2 . 30 May 2015.
53. According to Pliny the Elder, goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html
54. Book: Abraham Eraly. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. 7 August 2012. 1 December 2011. Penguin Books India. 978-0-670-08478-4. 246–.
55. Book: Iyengar PTS . 2001 . History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. . Asian Educational Services . 81-206-0145-9 . 29 December 2008.
56. Book: Iyengar PTS . 2001 . History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. . Asian Educational Services . 81-206-0145-9 . 192–195 . 29 December 2008.
57. https://books.google.co.in/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=true The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities
58. Book: David D'Beth Hillel. The Travels of Rabbi David D'Beth Hillel: From Jerusalem, Through Arabia, Koordistan, Part of Persia, and India to Madras. 1832. author. 135.
59. Book: The Jews in India and the Far East. 1976. Greenwood Press. 24–26 . 978-0-8371-2615-9 .
60. Book: Rolland E. Miller . Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters . Motilal Banarsidass Publications . 1993 . 978-81-208-1158-4 . 50.
61. https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=true The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5
62. Book: Geoffrey Wainwright . The Oxford History Of Christian Worship . Oxford University Press . 2006 . 978-0-19-513886-3 . 666 . 30 May 2015.
63. • Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2
64. Book: Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L . The Indian Christians of St Thomas . Cambridge University Press . 31 August 1982 . 0-521-21258-8 . 171.
65. Book: Susan Bayly . Saints, Goddesses and Kings . Cambridge University Press . 2004 . 978-0-521-89103-5 . 40 . 30 May 2015.
66. Book: Jonathan Goldstein . The Jews of China . M.E. Sharpe . 1999 . 978-0-7656-0104-9 . 123 . 30 May 2015.
67. Book: Nathan Katz . Who Are the Jews of India? . University of California Press . 2000 . 978-0-520-21323-4 . 245 . 30 May 2015.
68. Book: K. Balachandran Nayar. In quest of Kerala. 8 August 2012. 1974. Accent Publications. 86.
69. Book: A Sreedhara Menon. A Survey Of Kerala History. 8 August 2012. 1 January 2007. DC Books. 978-81-264-1578-6. 97.
70. Book: A Sreedhara Menon. A Survey Of Kerala History. 8 August 2012. 1 January 2007. DC Books. 978-81-264-1578-6. 123–131.
71. Book: R. E. Asher. T. C. Kumari. Malayalam. 1997. Psychology Press. 978-0-415-02242-2. 24–27.
72. Web site: The Buddhist History of Kerala . Kerala.cc . 25 September 2013 . 4 March 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215933/http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm . dead .
73. Book: A Sreedhara Menon. A Survey Of Kerala History. 9 August 2012. 1 January 2007. DC Books. 978-81-264-1578-6. 138.
74. Book: Educational Britannica Educational. The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places. 15 September 2012. 15 August 2010. The Rosen Publishing Group. 978-1-61530-202-4. 311.
75. Book: Boland-Crewe . Tara . Lea . David . The Territories and States of India . 2003 . 10.4324/9780203402900 . 978-1-135-35625-5 . 144–146 .
76. Book: Corn, Charles . Glasserman, Debbie . The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade . Kodansha America . March 1999 . 1-56836-249-8.
77. Book: Ravindran PN . Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum . CRC Press . 2000 . 11 November 2007 . 3 . 978-90-5702-453-5.
78. Book: Philip D. Curtin. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. 25 May 1984. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-26931-5. 144.
79. Book: J. L. Mehta. Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813. 9 August 2012. 1 January 2005. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 978-1-932705-54-6. 324–327.
80. Book: K. K. N. Kurup. India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars. 9 August 2012. 1 January 1997. Northern Book Centre. 978-81-7211-083-3. 37–38.
81. Book: South Asia 2006. 18 November 2012. 1 December 2005. Taylor & Francis. 289.
82. Book: Murkot Ramunny. Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy. 18 November 2012. 1 January 1993. Northern Book Centre. 978-81-7211-052-9. 57–70.
83. Book: Anjana Singh. Fort Kochi in Kerala, 1750–1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu. 18 November 2012. 30 April 2010. BRILL. 978-90-04-16816-9. 22–52.
84. Book: S. Krishna Iyer. Travancore Dutch relations, 1729–1741. 18 November 2012. 1995. CBH Publications. 978-81-85381-42-8. 49.
85. Book: Mark de Lannoy. The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: history and state formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758. 18 November 2012. 1997. Leiden University. 978-90-73782-92-1. 190.
86. Book: A. Sreedhara Menon. Political History of Modern Kerala. 10 August 2012. 1987. D C Books. 978-81-264-2156-5. 140.
87. Book: Raghunath Rai. History. 18 November 2012. FK Publications. 978-81-87139-69-0. 14–.
88. Book: British Museum. Anna Libera Dallapiccola. South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection. 18 November 2012. 22 June 2010. Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd. 978-0-7141-2424-7. 12–.
89. Book: Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe. Thorpe Edgar. The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011. 18 November 2012. Pearson Education India. 978-81-317-5830-4. 99.
90. Book: The Edinburgh Gazetteer. 18 November 2012. 1827. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. 63–.
91. Book: Dharma Kumar. Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labor in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century. 18 November 2012. 1965. CUP Archive. 87–. GGKEY:T72DPF9AZDK.
92. Book: K.P. Ittaman. History of Mughal Architecture Volume Ii. 18 November 2012. 1 June 2003. Abhinav Publications. 978-81-7017-034-1. 30–.
93. Book: Superintendent of Government Printing . Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras . Government of India . Calcutta . 1908 . 11 November 2007 . 22.
94. Book: Kakkadan Nandanath Raj. Michael Tharakan. Agrarian reform in Kerala and its impact on the rural economy: a preliminary assessment. 18 November 2012. 1981. International Labour Office. 2–3.
95. Book: M. Naeem Qureshi. Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924. 1999. BRILL. 90-04-11371-1. 445–447.
96. Book: Bardwell L. Smith. Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. 31 July 2012. 1976. BRILL. 978-90-04-04510-1. 35–42.
97. Book: Gopa Sabharwal. India Since 1947: The Independent Years. 18 November 2012. 2007. Penguin Books India. 978-0-14-310274-8. 23–.
98. Book: Tmh. General Knowledge Digest 2010. 18 November 2012. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. 978-0-07-069939-7. 3.
99. Book: Sarina Singh. Amy Karafin. Anirban Mahapatra. South India. 6 January 2013. 1 September 2009. Lonely Planet. 978-1-74179-155-6.
100. Web site: The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20211117014954/https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf . 17 November 2021 . 11 May 2021 . legislative.gov.in . Government of India.
101. News: 50 years of development. 30 August 2013. The Hindu. 12 April 2007. K.G. Kumar.
102. Book: Manali Desai. State Formation and Radical Democracy in India. 31 August 2013. 27 November 2006. Taylor & Francis. 978-0-203-96774-4. 142.
103. Book: Madan Gopal Chitkara. Baṃśī Rāma Śarmā. Indian Republic: Issues and Perspective. 18 November 2012. 1 January 1997. APH Publishing. 978-81-7024-836-1. 134–.
104. Web site: 1953 . Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition . https://web.archive.org/web/20181005131902/https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf . 5 October 2018 . 28 December 2020 . International Hydrographic Organization.
105. Web site: Physical and Anatomical Characteristic of Wood of Some Less-Known Tree Species of Kerala . Kerala Forest Research Institute . Government of Kerala . 18 November 2012 . 9 July 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130709150101/http://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf . live .
106. Web site: Marine Fisheries . fisheries.kerala.gov.in . Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala . 13 November 2015 . 17 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021802/http://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=44 . live .
107. Book: V. Balakrishnan Nair . Social Development and Demographic Changes in South India: Focus on Kerala . 18 November 2012 . 1994 . M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. . 978-8185880501 . 15.
108. Book: Srikumar Chattopadhyay . Richard W. Franke . Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala . 19 March 2019 . 2006 . Concept Publishing Company . 978-8180692949.
109. Book: Geological Survey Water-supply Paper . 19 March 2019 . 1961 . U.S. Government Printing Office . 4.
110. Book: Pradeep Sharma . Y. Dharnai Kumari . Tirunagaram Lakshmamma . Status Of Women And Family Planning . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Discovery Publishing House . 978-8183563260 . 217.
111. Book: Murdoch Books Pty Limited . Murdoch Books Test Kitchen . India . 18 November 2012 . 2010 . Murdoch Books . 978-1-74196-438-7 . 100.
112. Book: S. N. Sadasivan . River Disputes in India: Kerala Rivers Under Siege . 18 November 2012 . 2003 . Mittal Publications . 978-8170999133 . 223.
113. Book: Pratiyogita Darpan . Pratiyogita Darpan . 18 November 2012 . September 2006 . Pratiyogita Darpan . 72.
114. Book: Motilal (UK) Books of India . Tourist Guide Kerala . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Sura Books . 978-8174781642 . 11.
115. Web site: Chandran Nair . Dr.S.Sathis . India – Silent Valley Rainforest Under Threat Once More . rainforestinfo.org.au . 12 November 2015 . 24 September 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084520/http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/wrr2004/silentvalley.htm . live .
116. Book: M.R. Biju . Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management . 18 November 2012 . 2006 . Mittal Publications . 978-8183241298 . 63.
117. Book: Hussain . Geography Of India For Civil Ser Exam . 18 November 2012 . Tata McGraw-Hill Education . 978-0-07-066772-3 . 2.
118. Book: Frowde . Henry . Imperial Gazetteer of India . 1908–1909 . Clarendon Press . New . Oxford . 2 December 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ . 16 December 2008 . live.
119. News: UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site . https://web.archive.org/web/20130131192257/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/flora-fauna/32507340_1_world-heritage-list-western-ghats-border-town . live . 31 January 2013 . 2 July 2012 . . 27 November 2018.
120. News: The Times of India: Latest News India, World & Business News, Cricket & Sports, Bollywood . 2 July 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130621233624/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees . 21 June 2013 . . dead.
121. Book: William Logan . 1887 . Malabar Manual (Volume-II) . Madras Government Press .
122. Web site: Mineral Resources . Department of Mining and Geology – Government of Kerala . 4 April 2022 . 13 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220513124121/https://dmg.kerala.gov.in/mineral-resources/ . live .
123. News: Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T . Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study. . Health Physics . January 2009 . 19066487.
124. Book: Danny Moss . Public Relations Cases: International Perspectives . 18 November 2012 . 2010 . Taylor & Francis . 978-0-415-77336-2 . 41.
125. Book: Edgar Thorpe . The Pearson CSAT Manual 2012 . 18 November 2012 . 2012 . Pearson Education India . 978-8131767344 . 3.
126. News: Kerala Boat Ferries Lone Passenger To Help Her Take Exam . Press Trust of India . 1 June 2020 . 17 November 2020 . NDTV . 16 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211116093316/https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 . live .
127. Web site: Thirst below sea level . Suchitra . M . 13 August 2003 . . 17 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190922101804/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/thirst-below-sea-level/article28523147.ece . 22 September 2019.
128. Book: Majid Husain . Understanding: Geographical: Map Entries: for Civil Services Examinations: Second Edition . 18 November 2012 . Tata McGraw-Hill Education . 978-0-07-070288-2 . 9 . 2011.
129. Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) . 2005 . Introduction to Inland Water Transport . IWAI (Ministry of Shipping) . https://archive.today/20050204175110/http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html . dead . 4 February 2005 . 19 January 2006.
130. Book: India., Planning Commission . Kerala Development Report . 2008 . Academic Foundation . 978-8171885947 . 224 .
131. Environmental effects of river sand mining: A case from the river catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India . 10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z . 2008 . Padmalal . D. . Maya . K. . Sreebha . S. . Sreeja . R. . Environmental Geology . 54 . 4 . 879–889 . 2008EnGeo..54..879P . 129312081 . 12 February 2020 . 25 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191757/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z . live . 0943-0105 . subscription .
132. Book: M.K. Jha . Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation . 18 November 2012 . 2010 . Springer . 978-9048124978 . 81.
133. News: Worst floods in nearly a century kill 44 in India's Kerala state amid torrential monsoon rains . Baynes . Chris . 15 August 2018 . The Independent . 16 August 2018 . 23 May 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190523232643/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html . live .
134. News: Wayanad landslides: 133 dead, 481 saved, at least 98 missing . 30 July 2024 . . 31 July 2024 . 30 July 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240730073647/https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html . live .
135. Chacko . T. . Renuka . G. . 2002 . Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at Kariavattom, Kerala . Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci) . 111 . 1 . 79 . Kariavattom . 2002InEPS.111...79T . 10.1007/BF02702224 . free.
136. Book: Planning Commission, India . Kerala Development Report . Academic Foundation . 2007 . 978-8171885947 . 223 . 30 May 2015.
137. Book: RK Jain . Geography 10 . 18 November 2012 . Ratna Sagar . 978-8183320818 . 110.
138. Book: Together with Social Science Term II . 18 November 2012 . Rachna Sagar . 978-8181373991 . 112.
139. Book: Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe . Thorpe Edgar . The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011 . 18 November 2012 . Pearson Education India . 978-8131758304 . 7.
140. Book: N.N. Kher . Jaideep Aggarwal . A Text Book of Social Sciences . 18 November 2012 . Pitambar Publishing . 978-8120914667 . 5.
141. Book: Sarina Singh . Amy Karafin . Anirban Mahapatra . South India . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . Lonely Planet . 978-1-74179-155-6 . 15.
142. Book: S.V. Jeevananda Reddy . Climate Change: Myths and Realities . 18 November 2012 . Jeevananda Reddy . 71 . GGKEY:WDFHBL1XHK3.
143. Book: Rao . Agricultural Meteorology . PHI Learning . 2008 . 978-8120333383 . 173–74 . 30 May 2015.
144. Web site: Hydromet Division Updated/Real Time Maps . . 21 October 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062728/https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html . 5 March 2016 . dead.
145. Brenkert . A. . Malone . E. . 2003 . Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation . Joint Global Change Research Institute.
146. Web site: Sudha . T. M. . Opportunities in participatory planning to Evolve a Landuse Policy for Western Ghats Region in Kerala . Department of Town and Country Planning, Kerala . 14 . 18 January 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160325095604/https://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf . 25 March 2016 . dead.
147. Web site: History . 12 August 2015 . Kerala forests and wildlife department . 12 September 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150912231001/http://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=2 . dead .
148. Sreedharan TP . 2004 . Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district . Centre for Development Studies . https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054155/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf . 26 March 2009 . 28 December 2008.
149. Jayarajan M . 2004 . Sacred Groves of North Malabar . Centre for Development Studies . https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054142/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf . 26 March 2009 . 28 December 2008.
150. Book: Julian Evans . The Forests Handbook, Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . John Wiley & Sons . 978-0-470-75683-6 . 235.
151. Book: R. P. Singh . Zubairul Islam . Environmental Studies . 18 November 2012 . Concept Publishing Company . 978-8180697746 . 172 . 2012 . 25 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191749/https://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172#v=onepage&q&f=false . live .
152. Book: Alexandra Anna Enrica van der Geer . Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Brill . 978-9004168190 . 7.
153. Web site: World's oldest teak trees dying in Kerala . 13 May 2009 . DNA India . 25 November 2020 . 15 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210415102931/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-world-s-oldest-teak-trees-dying-in-kerala-1255723 . live .
154. Web site: View of A checklist of the vertebrates of Kerala State, India | Journal of Threatened Taxa . https://web.archive.org/web/20161007224232/https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443 . dead . 7 October 2016 . threatenedtaxa.org.
155. Book: Institute . Kerala Forest Research . Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala: Freshwater fishes . 2003 . Kerala Forest Research Institute . 978-8185041544 . en . 18 October 2020 . 25 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231125192259/https://books.google.com/books?id=SYcPAQAAMAAJ&q=fishes+in+kerala . live .
156. Vishnudattan . N. K. . etal . A new Tardigrade species, Stygarctus keralensis sp. nov. (Arthrotardigrada: Stygarctidae) from the intertidal zone of Southwest coast of India . 15 June 2021 . . 4985 . 3 . 381391 . 10.11646/zootaxa.4985.3.5 . 34186802 . 235688035 . 22 June 2021 . 27 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211127214807/https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4985.3.5 . live . subscription .
157. Web site: Revenue Guide 2018 . . 28 September 2020 . 20 September 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200920133932/https://ildm.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Revenue-Guide-2018.pdf . live .
158. Web site: Revenue department, government of Kerala . 28 September 2020 . 17 August 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210817225825/https://kerala.gov.in/revenue-department . dead.
159. Web site: Local Self Governance in Kerala . Government of Kerala . 28 September 2020 . 28 September 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210928223404/https://kerala.gov.in/local-self-governance#:~:text=Local%20Self-Governance%20Page&text=At%20present,%20there%20are%201200,Municipalities%20and%206%20Municipal%20Corporations . dead.
160. Web site: Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) . https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 . 16 June 2004 . 1 November 2008 . Census Commission of India.
161. Book: Dezan Shira . Associates. . Doing Business in India . 18 November 2012 . 2012 . Springer . 978-3-642-27618-7 . 313–.
162. Book: D Banerjea . N. R. Madhava Menon . Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 20 . 18 November 2012 . 2002 . Allied Publishers . 978-8177648713 . 9–.
163. News: 50 years on, Kochi still has a long way to go . M K Sunil Kumar . 26 September 2017 . 1 June 2021 . The Times of India . 2 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210602230954/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms . live .
164. Web site: Chronological List of Central Acts (Updated up to 17-10-2014) . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20180107091128/http://lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc . 7 January 2018 . 7 August 2016 . Lawmin.nic.in.
165. Book: Lewis McIver . G. Stokes . Imperial Census of 1881 Operations and Results in the Presidency of Madras . E.Keys at the Government Press . 1883 . (Vol II) . Madras . 444 . 5 December 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ . 27 March 2023 . live.
166. Book: Presidency . Madras (India . Madras District Gazetteers, Statistical Appendix For Malabar District. . The Superintendent, Government Press . 1915 . Vol.2 . Madras . 20 . en . 2 December 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ . 27 March 2023 . live.
167. Web site: Thiruvananthapuram . 2010 . usurped . https://web.archive.org/web/20100918085703/https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 . 18 September 2010 . 4 April 2022. Year of becoming a corporation
168. https://web.archive.org/web/20080209134539/https://www.hindu.com/2008/02/05/stories/2008020561140500.htm Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency redrawn Delimitation impact
169. Web site: Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project . Local Self Government Department . 7 February 2022 . 20 September 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200920051936/http://ksudp.org/ . dead .
170. Web site: City Information . Cochin International Airport . Government of Kerala . 18 November 2012 . 10 December 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121210070804/http://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32 . live .
171. News: Cities best to earn a living are not the best to live: Survey . The Times of India . 26 November 2007 . 7 February 2022 . 5 March 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160305021646/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics . dead .
172. Web site: History of Kerala Legislature . Government of Kerala . 17 November 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120619040353/https://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 . 19 June 2012 . dead.
173. Web site: Our Parliament . Parliamentofindia.nic.in . 25 February 2010 . 10 February 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100210043333/http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm . live .
174. Web site: Responsibilities . https://web.archive.org/web/20090731095433/https://rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 . dead . 31 July 2009 . 13 November 2015 . Kerala Rajbhavan.
175. Rules of Business of Government of Kerala

     PART II

     FIRST SCHEDULE

     https://gad.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/general_attachment/Rules%20of%20Business%20-%20Part%20II.pdf

176. Web site: Admin . 2025-01-22 . Land revenue administration, Government of Kerala . 2026-01-01 . Department of Land Revenue . en-gb.
177. Web site: History of Judiciary . All-India Judges Association . 29 April 2015 . 1 October 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151001072113/http://www.allindiajudges.org/Judgment/FNJPC2.htm . dead .
178. Book: U S Congress . Congress (U.S.) . Congressional Record, V. 153, Pt. 1, January 4, 2007 to January 17, 2007 . 18 November 2012 . 2010 . Government Printing Office . 978-0-16-086824-5 . 1198.
179. Web site: High Court of Kerala Profile . High Court of Kerala . 18 November 2012 . 31 October 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121031233641/http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html . live .
180. Book: D. Banerjea . Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 21 . 18 November 2012 . 2002 . Allied Publishers . 978-8177648720 . 80.
181. Book: Sharma . Sharma B.k. . Intro. to the Constitution of India, 4/e . 18 November 2012 . 2007 . PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. . 978-8120332461 . 261.
182. Web site: An Introduction to local self governments in Kerala . SDC CAPDECK . 17 November 2012 . Mariamma Sanu George . 17–20 . 30 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150530224012/http://www.lenobl.ru/Document/1412700121.pdf . live .
183. Web site: Kerala – A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation . https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf . 13 May 2013 . Kerala Institute of Local Administration . April 2009 . 17 November 2012 . S M Vijayanand .
184. Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, 1994 . 1994 . Government of Kerala . 31 December 2025.
185. Kerala Municipality Act, 1994 . 1994 . Government of Kerala . 31 December 2025.
186. Book: Rajesh Tandon . Ranjita Mohanty . Participatory Citizenship: Identity, Exclusion, Inclusion . 17 November 2012 . 2006 . Sage . 978-0-7619-3467-7 . 199.
187. Book: Shyam Nandan Chaudhary . Tribal Development Since Independence . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . Concept Publishing Company . 978-8180696220 . 235.
188. Book: T. M. Thomas Isaac . Richard W. Franke . Local Democracy and Development: The Kerala People's Campaign for Decentralized Planning . 2002 . Rowman & Littlefield . 978-0-7425-1607-6 . 13.
189. Web site: Local Bodies Local Self Government Department . 2025-07-08 . lsgkerala.gov.in . 2 June 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230602134126/https://lsgkerala.gov.in/en/lsgd/localbody-list . dead .
190. Book: India Corruption Survey 2019 – Report . Transparency International India . 2019 . 22 . 18 June 2021 . 10 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210710100154/https://transparencyindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/India-Corruption-Survey-2019.pdf . live .
191. News: Kerala the first digital State . Special currespondent . 28 February 2016 . 17 November 2020 . The Hindu . 15 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210415102347/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/kerala-the-first-digital-state/article8291466.ece . live .
192. News: Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa best governed States: report . PTI . 30 October 2020 . 20 June 2021 . The Hindu . 7 October 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211007210542/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala-goa-and-chandigarh-best-governed-states-ut-report/article32985716.ece . live .
193. Web site: Kerala Government – Legislature . Government of Kerala . 19 November 2012 . 8 December 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121208011357/http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm . dead .
194. News: A virus, social democracy, and dividends for Kerala . Heller . Patrick . 18 April 2020 . 2 February 2021 . The Hindu . 19 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211119130557/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-virus-social-democracy-and-dividends-for-kerala/article31370554.ece . live .
195. Tharamangalam J . 2005 . The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India . Political Economy for Environmental Planners . https://web.archive.org/web/20131115072025/https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf . 15 November 2013 . 28 December 2008.
196. Web site: 15 March 2021 . MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India . 23 June 2021 . 17 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210617193238/http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls . live .
197. Book: Government of Kerala . Economic Review 2020 – Volume I . Kerala State Planning Board . 2021 . Thiruvananthapuram . 18 June 2021 . 2 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210502171017/https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf . live .
198. Web site: Economy of Kerala – 2016 . slbckerala.com . 7 February 2022 . 28 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220328191455/http://slbckerala.com/Economy.aspx . dead .
199. K.P. Kannan . K.S. Hari . Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact, 1972–2000 . 2002 . . 4 April 2022 . 28 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210628135450/https://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html . live .
200. News: Remittances: Kerala drives dollar flows to India . . 5 November 2013 . 8 November 2013 . 7 November 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131107053009/http://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/remittances--kerala-drives-dollar-flows-to-india-053414379.html . live .
201. News: NRI deposits in Kerala banks cross Rs 1 lakh crore . 22 June 2015 . 13 November 2015 . . 25 June 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150625121200/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/other-news/NRI-deposits-in-Kerala-banks-cross-Rs-1-lakh-crore/articleshow/47769012.cms . live .
202. Book: India. Planning Commission . Kerala Development Report . 2008 . Academic Foundation . 978-8171885947 . 396.
203. Web site: State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch . March 2002 . Reserve Bank of India . 28 December 2008 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070810094850/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf . 10 August 2007.
204. News: Now, you can bank on every village in Kerala . The Times of India . 1 October 2011 . 13 November 2015 . 4 January 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170104180910/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-you-can-bank-on-every-village-in-Kerala/articleshow/10194261.cms . live .
205. News: Kumar KG . Jobless no more? . Business Line . 8 October 2007 . A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007. . 16 November 2012 . 6 November 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131106032604/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece . live .
206. Book: Nair NG . Nair PR, Shaji H . Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment . Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development . Centre for Development Studies . Thiruvananthapuram . 978-8187621751 . 31 December 2008 . 30 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150530210334/http://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/72.pdf . live .
207. News: Men (Not) At Work . John . Mary . . 12 May 2008 . 13 November 2015 . 6 November 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131106032651/http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 . live .
208. Deaton . Angus . Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999–2000 . 22 August 2003 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110628193845/https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf . 28 June 2011 . dead . 10 . 4 April 2022.
209. Web site: Budget In Brief . PDF . finance.kerala.gov.in . Government of Kerala . 4 December 2020 . 25 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201125214731/http://www.finance.kerala.gov.in/bdgtDcs.jsp . live .
210. Web site: Memoranda from States: Kerala . https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf . 26 June 2008 . fincomindia.nic.in . 25 September 2013.
211. https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm Kerala: Hartals Own Country?
212. Web site: India Today On Cm . https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091613/https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today . dead . 24 December 2013 . Keralacm.gov.in . 11 January 2014.
213. News: Big push for infrastructure in Budget . The Hindu . 3 March 2017 . www.thehindu.com . 25 November 2020 . 29 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210129210933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/big-push-for-infrastructure-in-budget/article17403255.ece . live .
214. Web site: Kerala Budget: Infrastructure projects get a major fillip . The New Indian Express . 4 March 2017 . 25 November 2020 . 30 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210130030958/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2017/mar/04/kerala-budget-infrastructure-projects-get-a-major-fillip-1577360.html . live .
215. News: Modi to address heads of civic bodies on urban revamp . 20 June 2015 . . 25 June 2015 . 2 February 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210202155935/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-to-address-heads-of-civic-bodies-on-urban-revamp/article7336851.ece . live .
216. News: R. Ramabhadran . Pillai . AMRUT to roll out on a smaller scale . 12 November 2015 . The Hindu . 12 November 2015 . 7 February 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052652/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amrut-to-roll-out-on-a-smaller-scale/article7868199.ece . live .
217. News: Shopping festival begins . The Hindu . 2 December 2007 . 24 January 2013 . 27 September 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130927054507/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece . live .
218. News: LuLu Group: Going places . . 13 November 2020 . 26 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210426172244/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/local/lulu-group-going-places . live .
219. Making sense of Kerala . The Hindu . 13 December 2021 . Heller . Patrick . Törnquist . Olle . https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151547/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece . 5 March 2022 . 14 December 2021 . Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity..
220. Book: S. Rajitha Kumar . University of Kerala . Traditional Industries of India in the Globalised World . 2007 . University of Kerala . 978-8177081435 . 223.
221. Web site: Indian Coir Industry . Indian Mirror . 29 April 2014 . 2 May 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140502033302/http://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/coir.html . live .
222. Book: SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010 . Small Industries Development Bank of India . 2010.
223. A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario . N. Rajeevan . International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management . March 2012 . 2 . 3.
224. Web site: Functions, KSIDC, Thiruvananthapuram . https://web.archive.org/web/20140709062837/https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php . 9 July 2014 . Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation . 6 December 2013.
225. Government of Kerala . 2005 . Kerala at a Glance . Government of Kerala . 22 January 2006 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060118031516/https://www.kerala.gov.in/ . 18 January 2006.
226. Book: B.R. Sinha . Encyclopaedia Of Professional Education (10 Vol.) . 18 November 2012 . 2003 . Sarup & Sons . 978-8176254106 . 204–05.
227. Book: Babu P. Remesh . Dynamics of Rural Labour: A Study of Small Holding Rubber Tappers in Kerala . 18 November 2012 . 2010 . Concept Publishing Company . 978-8180696602 . 52–.
228. Book: Government of India Planning Commission . Kerala Development Report . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Academic Foundation . 978-8171885947 . 66–.
229. Book: Planning Commission, India . Kerala Development Report . Academic Foundation . 2007 . 978-8171885947 . 66 . 30 May 2015.
230. Book: Limca Book of Records . 18 November 2012 . 2001 . Bisleri Beverages Limited . 97.
231. Book: South Asia 2006 . 18 November 2012 . 2005 . Taylor & Francis . 291 . 978-1-85743-318-0.
232. Book: Economic Affairs . 18 November 2012 . 1998 . H. Roy . 47.
233. Book: James Newton . Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine . 2012 . 18 November 2012 . Springwood emedia . 978-1-4761-2308-0 . 3–.
234. Book: Rajan, S. & B.L.Markose . Baby Lissy Markose . Propagation of Horticultural Crops: Vol.06. Horticulture Science Series . 18 November 2012 . 2007 . New India Publishing . 978-8189422486 . 212–.
235. Book: Pradhan . Retailing Management 3E . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . Tata McGraw-Hill Education . 978-0-07-015256-4 . 256–.
236. Book: T. Pradeepkumar . Kumar, Pradeep . Management of Horticultural Crops: Vol.11 Horticulture Science Series: In 2 Parts . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . New India Publishing . 978-8189422493 . 509–.
237. Book: Filippo Osella . Caroline Osella . Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict . 18 November 2012 . 2000 . Pluto Press . 978-0-7453-1693-2 . 235–.
238. News: Cashew sector in a tailspin . The Hindu . 24 June 2016 . 24 June 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160624004205/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cashew-sector-in-a-tailspin/article8767346.ece . live .
239. Book: C.K. Varshney . J. Rzóska . Aquatic Weeds in South East Asia . 18 November 2012 . 1976 . Springer . 978-9061935568 . 100–.
240. Book: Aline Dobbie . India the Elephants Blessing . 18 November 2012 . 2006 . Melrose Press . 978-1-905226-85-6 . 123–.
241. Web site: Kerala: Natural Resources . https://web.archive.org/web/20111218084509/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 . 18 December 2011 . Government of India . 18 November 2012.
242. Web site: Kerala: April 2012 . Indian Brand Equity Fund . 18 November 2012 . 10 May 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130510151146/http://www.ibef.org/download/Kerala_060710.pdf . live .
243. Book: India. Planning Commission . Third five year plan . 18 November 2012 . 1961 . Manager of Publications . 359.
244. Book: Government of India Planning Commission . Kerala Development Report . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Academic Foundation . 978-8171885947 . 51.
245. Book: Planning Commission, India . Kerala Development Report . Academic Foundation . 2007 . 978-8171885947 . 51 . 30 May 2015.
246. Book: Leela Gulati . Fisherwomen on the Kerala Coast: Demographic and Socio-Economic Impact of a Fisheries Development Project . registration . 18 November 2012 . 1984 . International Labour Organization . 978-9221036265 . 103.
247. Book: Journal of Kerala Studies . 18 November 2012 . 1987 . University of Kerala. . 201.
248. Book: Handbook of Marine Fisheries Conservation and Management . limited . Oxford University Press . R. Quentin Grafton . Ray Hilborn . Dale Squires . 2009 . 10–12 . 978-0-19-537028-7.
249. Book: Ministry Annual Report (2019–20) . Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India . 2020 . New Delhi . 28 October 2021 . 20 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211028140933/https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Ministry%20Annual%20Report_2019-20.pdf . live .
250. Book: Basic Road Statistics of India (2016–17) . Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India . 2019 . New Delhi . 7–18 . 28 August 2021 . 25 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210828082929/https://www.morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Basic%20_Road_Statics_of_India.pdf . live .
251. Web site: National Highways in Kerala . Kerala Public Works Department . Government of Kerala.
252. News: Coastal, Hill Highways to become a reality . 12 July 2017 . The Hindu . 12 February 2019 . 15 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210415092848/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/coastal-hill-highways-to-become-a-reality/article19262450.ece . live .
253. Web site: District of Palakkad – the granary of Kerala, Silent Valley National Park, Nelliyampathy . keralatourism.org . 30 May 2015 . 15 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210415114106/https://www.keralatourism.org/districts/palakkad/ . live .
254. Web site: About us . https://web.archive.org/web/20101201055142/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD . dead . 1 December 2010 . Kerala Public Works Department . Government of Kerala . 18 November 2012.
255. News: Kumar VS . Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month . The Hindu . 20 January 2006 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070304181402/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm . 4 March 2007.
256. Web site: Kumar VS . Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP) . Kerala Public Works Department . Government of Kerala . 2003 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080512054304/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp . 12 May 2008.
257. News: Kumar KG . Accidentally notorious . The Hindu . 22 September 2003 . 11 November 2007 . 10 August 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110810210809/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm . live .
258. Web site: Kerala parties finally toe NHAI line of 45-m wide highways . Indian Express . 18 August 2010 . 25 September 2013.
259. Web site: Check out India's 13 super expressways . Rediff.com . 5 July 2011 . 25 September 2013 . 28 September 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024436/http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-indias-13-super-highways/20110705.htm . live .
260. News: Kerala against development of five NHs . subscription . . 28 March 2013 . 29 September 2024 . 4 December 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20241204153945/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-against-development-of-five-nhs/article4555024.ece . live .
261. News: State's troubled highways a shocking revelation for Centre . The Hindu . 30 June 2013 . 25 September 2013 . Staff Reporter.
262. Web site: Introduction . Delhi Metro Rail Corporation . 18 November 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120906213234/https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf . 6 September 2012.
263. Web site: The Zonal Dream Of Railway Kerala . yentha.com . 18 November 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121025033001/https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala . 25 October 2012 . dead.
264. News: Thiruvananthapuram Central to be made a world-class station . 7 March 2007 . The Hindu . en-IN . 0971-751X . 8 May 2016.
265. News: Aviation school proposal evokes mixed response . The Hindu . 8 June 2009 . 21 July 2015 . 20 December 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161220075251/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article252269.ece . live .
266. News: Sudhakaran, P . Kannur flew, way before its first airport . The Times of India . 14 September 2015 . Timesofindia.indiatimes.com . 13 November 2020 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170518022943/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms . 18 May 2017.
267. News: Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users . The Times of India . 2 April 2012 . 4 June 2021 . 7 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210604110846/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms . live .
268. News: Menon . Supriya . How is the world's first solar-powered airport faring? – BBC News . Bbc.com . 9 October 2015 . 21 December 2018 . BBC News . 25 May 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230525214353/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34421419 . live .
269. News: CIAL chosen for UN environmental honour . . 26 July 2018 . 7 April 2023 . 7 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230407102227/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2018/jul/26/cial-chosen-for-un-environmental-honour-1848990.html . live .
270. News: The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other . . 6 December 1999 . 11 November 2007 . 20 January 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080120015042/http://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm . live .
271. Web site: Kollam port gets ICP clearance . 15 Jun 2024 . The Hindu . 16 Jun 2024 . 16 June 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240616013704/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kollam-port-gets-icp-clearance/article68293607.ece . live .
272. Web site: LIST OF IMMIGRATION CHECK POSTs . Ministry of Home Affairs - Govt. of India . 16 Jun 2024 . 31 July 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240731204706/https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-03/ICPList_05032024..pdf . live .
273. Book: Government of India Planning Commission . Kerala Development Report . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Academic Foundation . 978-8171885947 . 207.
274. Web site: Prabhakaran . Aishwarya . 2024-04-28 . 'Sustainable, scenic': Kochi Water Metro carves niche & new paths . 2025-03-08 . The New Indian Express . en.
275. Web site: Kochi Water Metro About Us . 2025-03-08 . Kochi Water Metro . en.
276. News: Reviving the historic Canoly Canal . https://web.archive.org/web/20100923092718/https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm . dead . 23 September 2010 . 5 January 2005 . . 16 August 2009.
277. Web site: Size, Growth Rate and Distribution of Population . Census 2011 . Government of India . 13 November 2015 . 23 September 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150923224858/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf . live .
278. Web site: Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011. Population of the urban local bodies in Kerala (2011). Government of Kerala. 4 December 2020. 24 September 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200924173424/http://urbanaffairskerala.org/images/downloads/ulb_population2011.pdf. dead.
279. Book: Shoreline change assessment for Kerala coast . National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment and Forests . R Ramesh . R Purvaja . A Senthil Vel . 30 May 2015 . 30 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204904/http://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf . dead .
280. Web site: Level of Urbanisation in Indian States . mohua.gov.in . Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India . 7 February 2022 . 7 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220207105118/https://mohua.gov.in/cms/level-of-urbanisation.php . live .
281. Book: Kalathil MJ . 2004 . Nair PR, Shaji H . Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady . Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development . Centre for Development Studies . Thiruvananthapuram . 978-8187621690 . 29 December 2008 . 30 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150530205641/http://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/66.pdf . live .
282. Web site: 5 March 2017 . International Women's Day 2017: Kerala and the myth of matriarchy . 16 July 2021 . Firstpost . 16 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210716051101/https://www.firstpost.com/living/kerala-and-the-myth-of-matriarchy-misogyny-is-as-much-part-of-the-state-as-matrilineal-communities-3315458.html . live .
283. Tomila Lankina. Lankina . Tomila V. . Getachew, Lullit . 2013 . Competitive religious entrepreneurs: Christian missionaries and female education in colonial and post-colonial India . British Journal of Political Science . 43 . 103–31 . 10.1017/s0007123412000178 . 145185494 . 25 February 2021 . 2 February 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210225144811/https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/44929/1/Competitive%20religious%20entrepreneurs%20(lsero).pdf . live .
284. Web site: ലേഖകൻ . മാധ്യമം . 10 July 2021 . ജനസംഖ്യാദിനം; അറിയാം 21 കാര്യങ്ങൾ. 16 July 2021 . Madhyamam . en . 16 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210716051106/https://www.madhyamam.com/velicham/special-stories/july-11-world-population-day-821671 . live .
285. Book: Ammu Joseph . Oommen M.A. . 1999 . Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience . Concept Publishing Company . 978-8170227656 . 479–86 . 30 May 2015.
286. Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 January 14, 1999.
287. Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.
288. Jeffrey . Robin . 1987 . Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate . Pacific Affairs . 60 . 3 . 447–72 . 10.2307/2758883 . 2758883.
289. Web site: Kerala Government Has Unveiled A Policy To Enforce Constitutional Rights Of Transgenders . The Huffington Post . 12 November 2015 . 28 June 2016 . 10 May 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170510075414/http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2015/11/12/kerala-government-transge_n_8543410.html . live .
290. Web site: Why Kerala's free sex-change surgeries will offer a new lifeline for the transgender community . Devasia . T. K. . Scroll.in . 19 March 2016 . en-US . 5 July 2019 . 29 June 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190629061452/https://scroll.in/article/804496/why-keralas-free-sex-change-surgeries-will-offer-a-new-lifeline-for-the-transgender-community . live .
291. News: After She-Taxi, Kerala to launch G-Taxi for transgenders . . 31 January 2016 . PTI . 25 March 2016 . Thiruvananthapuram . 29 October 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191029184249/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/After-She-Taxi-Kerala-to-launch-G-Taxi-for-transgenders/articleshow/50792517.cms . live .
292. Web site: How Kerala left the country behind on transgender rights . dna . en-US . 19 March 2016 . 14 November 2015 . 29 June 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190629021111/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-how-kerala-left-the-country-behind-on-transgender-rights-2145017 . live .
293. News: Affirming their right, they march with pride . 13 August 2017 . The Hindu . en-IN . 0971-751X . 4 April 2022 . 28 December 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191228100119/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/affirming-their-right-they-march-with-pride/article19484625.ece . live .
294. Web site: Kerala to host its first gay parade . The Times of India . 30 June 2010.
295. Web site: Kerala govt passes order to use 'transgender' instead of 'third/other gender' . www.thenewsminute.com . 8 July 2019 . 30 June 2019.
296. News: Only 'transgender' in official communication . Roshni . R. k . 30 June 2019 . The Hindu . 8 July 2019 . en-IN . 0971-751X.
297. Book: Lin, Chun . The transformation of Chinese socialism . 2006 . . 978-0-8223-3785-0 . Durham [N.C.] . 298 . 63178961.
298. Web site: Sub-national HDI – Area Database . Global Data Lab . Institute for Management Research, Radboud University . 25 September 2018 . en.
299. Web site: India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion . . 24 October 2014 . 21 October 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131021081939/http://www.im4change.org/docs/340IHDR_Summary.pdf . dead .
300. Web site: Kerala HDR 2005 . Human Development Report . United Nations . Asia and the Pacific . 30 May 2015.
301. Web site: Human Development Report 2005 . Human Development Report . United Nations . Asia and the Pacific . 14 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110310193948/https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf . 10 March 2011 . dead.
302. Web site: Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart . 21 October 2011 . . 14 November 2015.
303. News: Growth, reforms lift living standards in India: Human development Index . 22 October 2011 . 14 November 2015 . Economic Times.
304. Book: Sunil Mani . Anjini Kochar . Kerala's Economy: Crouching Tiger, Sacred Cows . 24 September 2012 . 2006 . D.C. Books . 978-8126413591 . 121.
305. Web site: 8 September 2020 . Literacy Survey, India (2017–18) . 9 September 2020 . Firstpost . 2 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211102214441/https://www.firstpost.com/india/at-96-2-kerala-tops-indias-literacy-rate-chart-again-andhra-pradesh-ranks-lowest-with-66-4-8796401.html . live .
306. Web site: Literacy Rate in Kerala – 2018 . 7 February 2022 . 7 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220207105113/https://www.pincodeindia.net/literacy-rate-of-kerala.php . dead .
307. Web site: Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban) . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20180127163347/https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf . 27 January 2018 . 3 October 2018 . planningcommission.gov.in . Planning Commission, Government of India.
308. News: Kerala tops in literacy rate, health services . Chennai, India . The Hindu . 22 October 2011 . J. . Balaji . 30 May 2015.
309. Book: Human Development Report 2005 Kerala . State Planning Board . Centre for Development Studies Thiruvananthapuram . 2006 . Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
310. Web site: Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011–12 . planningcommission.gov.in . Planning Commission, Government of India . 27 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140628120737/https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf . 28 June 2014 . dead.
311. EFA [Education for All] Global Monitoring Report ]. 2003 . https://web.archive.org/web/20040923014605/https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf . 23 September 2004 . 156 . . 4 April 2022.
312. Kutty VR . 2000 . Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India . Health Policy and Planning . 15 . 1 . 103–09 . 10.1093/heapol/15.1.103 . 10731241 . 7634887 . free .
313. News: Varma MS . Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap . The Financial Express . 4 April 2005 . 12 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080617134031/https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 . 17 June 2008.
314. Web site: SDG India – Index 2021–22 – Partnerships in the Decade of Action . 2021 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20210613021943/https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/SDG_3.0_Final_04.03.2021_Web_Spreads.pdf . 13 June 2021 . . 29 September 2024.
315. Web site: Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy. Table 154 : Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line. (2011-12) . 13 September 2021 . Reserve Bank of India . 13 September 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210913133540/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19887 . live .
316. Web site: Kerala: A ghost town in the world's most populated country . 26 March 2023 . www.bbc.co.uk . BBC News . 26 March 2023.
317. Book: Kutty VR . Nair PR, Shaji H . 2004 . Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration . Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development . Centre for Development Studies . Thiruvananthapuram . 978-8187621607 . 12 November 2007 . 6.
318. Web site: Fertility at District Level in India:Lessons from the 2011 Census . Christophe Z Guilmoto and Irudaya Rajan . 31 . PDF . 29 October 2020.
319. News: Fertility rate to even out in 20 years in Kerala . Deccan Chronicle . 29 October 2020.
320. Web site: Kerala among the least corrupt states in India, Karnataka tops the list: study . OnManorama.
321. Web site: India Corruption Study – 2005 . . June 2005 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130413044112/https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 . dead . 13 April 2013.
322. Book: Jean Dreze . Amartya Sen . India: Development and Participation . 24 September 2012 . 2002 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-925749-2 . 368.
323. Web site: Table–3.1 Incidence And Rate Of Violent Crimes During 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024506/https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf . dead . 28 September 2013 . 21 June 2012 . 24 September 2014.
324. News: Child marriages remain Kerala's secret shame . The Hindu . 4 September 2015 . 4 September 2015 . 0971-751X.
325. News: Naha . Abdul Latheef . Child marriage cases go up in Malappuram . 18 February 2018 . The Hindu . 31 December 2019.
326. Web site: Child marriages shoot up in the most unlikely places in Kerala . OnManorama.
327. News: Natu . Nitasha . Kerala No. 1 in child sex abuse complaints; Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra follow . 25 December 2019 . The Time of India . 31 December 2019.
328. News: Conviction rate up, Kerala tops with over 77% link . New Delhi, India . The Times of India . 9 August 2015 . 14 November 2015.
329. News: Population of homeless in rural India dips . India . The Times of India . 7 December 2013 . 14 November 2015.
330. News: CM told to pursue Zero Homeless Kerala project link . Pathanamthitta, India . The Hindu . 3 November 2013.
331. News: Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state link . New Delhi, India . The Times of India . 15 August 2015.
332. News: Maya . C . The road to universal health care in State . 14 November 2015 . The Hindu . 12 December 2013.
333. Book: Krishnaswami P . Neelakantan S, Nair PR, Shaji H . 2004 . Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates . Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development . Centre for Development Studies . Thiruvananthapuram . 978-8187621669 . 31 December 2008.
334. News: Kerala as good as US, OECD in saving newborn children . The Times of India . 9 March 2017.
335. News: Patel . Atish . Why Kerala is the best place in India to die . 4 May 2016.
336. Roy MKP . 2004 . Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality . Centre for Development Studies . 28 December 2008 . 21 December 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161221084934/http://services.iriskf.org/data/articles/Document1168200520.8355524.pdf . dead .
337. Web site: Diabetic patients: Kerala tops list of Indian states . 8 December 2017 . The Times of India . en . 28 October 2019.
338. Web site: August 2002 . Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State" . United Nations Foundation . https://web.archive.org/web/20100306205352/https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp . 6 March 2010 . 14 March 2009.
339. News: Indian state wins 'baby-friendly' award . Kochi, India . BBC News . 1 August 2002.
340. Unnikrishnan . E . 2004 . Materia Medica of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur . Centre for Development Studies . 22 January 2006.
341. Angus Stewart, woodburn The Religious attitude: A psychological study of its differentiation, 1927
342. News: PK Warrier turns 90 . The Hindu . 6 June 2011.
343. Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1 . https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/nj6YqhsUo0c . 22 December 2021 . live . BBC World – India Business Report . 30 May 2013 . Documentary.
344. News: അമ്പതിന്റെ നിറവില്‍ മലപ്പുറം; മലപ്പുറത്തിന്റെ മാനവിക മഹാപൈതൃകം . Leelakrishnan . Alamkode . 17 June 2019 . Mathrubhumi . 24 April 2021 . 7 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210507091729/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/alamkode-leelakrishnan-writes-about-malappuram-1.3880292 . dead.
345. Web site: Kerala becomes first state to provide free cancer treatment – Free Press Journal . www.freepressjournal.in . 18 May 2016 . 11 October 2014.
346. Web site: Health Statistics and Public Health issues in Kerala . . en . 28 October 2019.
347. News: Health crisis in Kerala: The increase in cancer, kidney and liver diseases – The Economic Times . The Economic Times . 18 May 2016 . 23 April 2016 . Krishnakumar . P. K. . Sanandakumar . S..
348. Book: Statistics Wing, Health Information Cell . List of modern medicine institutions (2017–18) . Directorate of Health Services, Government of Kerala . 2019 . Thiruvananthapuram . 1, 7 .
349. News: 'Classical' status for Malayalam . . 24 May 2013 . 25 May 2013 . Thiruvananthapuram, India.
350. Web site: Kerala – Principal Language . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20200610111356/https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 . 10 June 2020 . 27 November 2018 . Government of India.
351. Web site: Census of India – Language . censusindia.gov.in.
352. News: Kerala government to appoint officer to study issues of linguistic minorities . 2 August 2017 . The Times of India . City: Thiruvananthapuram . TNN . 29 December 2019.
353. Web site: The paradox of India's most religiously diverse state . 7 April 2019 . The Ground Truth Project . 7 April 2019.
354. Web site: There's a Place in India Where Religions Coexist Beautifully and Gender Equality Is Unmatched . 6 April 2016 . Huffpost . 6 April 2016.
355. Heller . Patrick . Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India . . 24 . 6 . 1055–1071 . June 1996 . 10.1016/0305-750X(96)00015-0 . 4 April 2022 --> . free.
356. Web site: Population by religious communities . Census of India . Government of India . 26 August 2015.
357. News: Increase in Muslim population in the State . https://web.archive.org/web/20041128124211/https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm . dead . 28 November 2004 . Chennai, India . 23 September 2004 . . 13 November 2015.
358. News: Kerala, not Goa, has maximum no. of Christians . The Times of India . 25 December 2007 . The Times Group.
359. Web site: Vital Statistics 2016 . Ecostat, Kerala Government. . 7 June 2019 . 11 July 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190711011809/http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2016.pdf . dead.
360. Web site: Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India . Sethi . Atul . 24 June 2007 . . 24 September 2014.
361. Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
362. Book: Varghese . Theresa . Stark World Kerala . 2006 . Stark World Pub. . 978-8190250511 . en.
363. Book: Kumar . Satish . India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 . 2012 . Routledge . en . 978-1-136-70491-8.
364. Minu Ittyipe; Solomon to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012
365. Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) https://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf
366. Book: The Palace of Illusions . Chitra Divakaruni . 2011 . Pan Macmillan . 978-0-330-47865-6 . 18 November 2012.
367. Book: Jonathan Goldstein . The Jews of China . M. E. Sharpe . 1999 . 978-0-7656-0104-9 . 123.
368. Book: Edward Simpson . Kai Kresse . Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean . 24 July 2012 . 2008 . Columbia University Press . 978-0-231-70024-5 . 333.
369. Book: Uri M. Kupferschmidt . The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine . Brill . 1987 . 978-9004079298 . 458–59 . 25 July 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191234/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458 . 25 November 2023 . live.
370. Book: Husain Raṇṭattāṇi . Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles . 25 July 2012 . 2007 . Other Books . 978-8190388788 . 179–.
371. https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5
372. Book: Johnson, Barbara C. . https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&pg=PA27 . The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities . Orpa . Slapak . The Israel Museum . Jerusalem . 2003 . 27 . 9652781797 . The Cochin Jews Of Kerala .
373. Web site: Saint Thomas . Encyclopædia Britannica . 1 January 2019.
374. Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956
375. Book: Selvister Ponnumuthan . Authentic Interpretation in Canon Law: Reflections on a Distinctively Canonical Institution . 18 November 2012 . 1996 . Gregorian&Biblical BookShop . 978-8876527210 . 103–.
376. Book: Raymond Brady Williams . Christian Pluralism in the United States: The Indian Immigrant Experience . 18 November 2012 . 1996 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-57016-9 . 144–.
377. Book: Allan Anderson . Edmond Tang . Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia . 18 November 2012 . 2005 . OCMS . 978-1-870345-43-9 . 248–.
378. Book: John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. pp. 377–. Retrieved 18 November 2012. . John Wiley & Sons. . 978-1-4443-9254-8 . 2010.
379. Book: Thomas Arthur Russell . Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions . 18 November 2012 . 2010 . Universal-Publishers . 978-1-59942-877-2 . 40–.
380. Book: Stephen Neill . A History of Christianity in India: 1707–1858 . 31 August 2012 . 2002 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-89332-9 . 247–251.
381. Book: Bergunder . Michael . The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century . 2008 . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing . 978-0-8028-2734-0 . 15–16, 26–30, 37–57 . en.
382. Book: A Sreedhara Menon . A Survey Of Kerala History . 18 November 2012 . 2007 . DC Books . 978-8126415786 . 192–.
383. Book: Knut A. Jacobsen, Selva J. Rak . Selva J. Raj . South Asian Christian Diaspora: Invisible Diaspora in Europe and North America . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. . 978-0-7546-6261-7 . 172–.
384. Book: Ajantha Subramanian . Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . Stanford University Press . 978-0-8047-8685-0 . 95–.
385. Singh, Anjana. "Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750–1830 The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu." Brill, Leiden Boston: 2010, 3: 92.
386. Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–12.
387. https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&q=two+millennia The Israelis (Jews) of India: A Story of Three Communities
388. Weil, Shalva. India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rd&nbsp;edn.]. Katz 200/*Religion */ 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998
389. Book: Joan G. Roland . The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era . 18 November 2012 . 1998 . Transaction Publishers . 978-0-7658-0439-6 . 283–.
390. Web site: Paradesi Synagogue – tourist attractions at Mattancherry, Ernakulam Kerala Tourism . www.keralatourism.org.
391. Book: Stewart Lockie . David Carpenter . Agriculture, Biodiversity and Markets: Livelihoods and Agroecology in Comparative Perspective . 18 November 2012 . 2012 . Routledge . 978-1-136-54649-5 . 258.
392. Book: George Mathew . B S Baviskar . Inclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . Sage Publications . 978-8178298603 . 204.
393. Roy . Ranjan . 1990 . Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha . Mathematics Magazine . 63 . 5 . 291–306 . 10.2307/2690896 . 2690896.
394. News: Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi . The Hindu . 13 November 2016 . Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State..
395. Web site: Kerala to celebrate CMS mission . 9 November 2016 . Church Mission Society . 4 April 2022 . Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.' .
396. Growth of Literacy in Kerala . 5 June 2015 . Economic and Political Weekly . 7–8 . www.epw.in.
397. Book: District Handbooks of Kerala . March 2003 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090319183020/https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf . 19 March 2009 . dead . 19–20 . Department of Information & Public Relations Government of Kerala . 4 April 2022.
398. Book: Menon, Sreedhara . A survey of Kerala History . 1996 . S.Viswanathan Printers and Publishers . Madras . 339, 348–49 . 978-8126415786 . 20 March 2019 . 24 August 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190824143707/https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history . dead.
399. Book: Planning Commission, India . Kerala Development Report . Academic Foundation . 2007 . 978-8171885947 . 53–58 . 30 May 2015.
400. Book: Mookkiah Soundarapandian . Literacy Campaign in India . 2000 . Discovery Publishing House . 978-8171415533 . 21.
401. News: D Suresh Kumar . Kerala tops primary education index . The Times of India . 13 October 2008 . 30 July 2009.
402. Book: Planning Commission, India . Kerala Development Report . Academic Foundation . 2007 . 978-8171885947 . 255–58 . 30 May 2015.
403. News: Tripura tops literacy rate with 94.65 per cent, leaves behind Kerala . https://web.archive.org/web/20130913005546/https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html . dead . 13 September 2013 . 12 February 2015 . IBNLive . 9 September 2013.
404. News: Kerala becomes 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education . 12 January 2016 . 14 January 2016 . International Business Times.
405. Web site: Kerala School Data Bank . 5 December 2020 . sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in . Government of Kerala.
406. Web site: Education in Kerala . https://web.archive.org/web/20111218082340/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 . 18 December 2011 . Government of India . 30 May 2015.
407. Book: Cultural Heritage of Kerala . A. Sreedhara Menon . D C Books . 2008 . 978-8126419036 . 13–15 . 30 May 2015.
408. Book: Menon, A. Sreedhara . A Survey Of Kerala History . 2007 . DC Books . 978-8126415786 . 55 . en.
409. Book: A. Sreedhara Menon . Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction . 1978 . East-West Publications . 10.
410. Book: Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music . 2004 . Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala . 7–37.
411. Book: S. Bhagyalekshmy . Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music . 6 January 2013 . 2004 . Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala.
412. News: 4 March 2010 . India's overworked elephants . 30 May 2015 . BBC.
413. Book: J. Devika . Her-self: Early Writings on Gender by Malayalee Women, 1898–1938 . 17 November 2012 . 2005 . Popular Prakashan . 978-8185604749 . 5.
414. Book: Kumar Suresh Singh . People of India: Maharashtra . 17 November 2012 . 2004 . Popular Prakashan . 978-8179911020 . 1524.
415. Book: Thomas Benedikter . Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . LIT Verlag Münster . 978-3-643-10231-7 . 90.
416. Web site: Language – India, States and Union Territories . Census of India 2011 . Office of the Registrar General . 13–14.
417. News: Shock after alcohol flows from kitchen taps in Kerala . BBC News . 6 February 2020.
418. Book: Cultural Heritage of Kerala . 2008 . D.C. Books . 978-8126419036 . 76.
419. Book: The Legacy of Kerala . 1982 . Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala . 978-8126437986 . 34.
420. Book: World Encyclopaedia of Interfaith Studies: World religions . 2009 . Jnanada Prakashan . 978-8171392803 . 704–10.
421. News: The stars of Pooram show are jumbos . 26 May 2006 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071118212644/https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm . dead . 18 November 2007 . . Chennai, India.
422. Book: Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. . Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage . 2013 . Biju Mathew . 978-8192128443 . 433.
423. Book: David Stott . Kerala Footprint Focus Guide: Includes Kochi, Alappuzha, Thrissur, Periyar, River Nila . 2014 . Footprint Travel Guides . 978-1-909268-79-1 . 94.
424. Book: M. G. S. Narayanan . K. K. N. Kurup . Historical Studies in Kerala . 1976 . Department of History, University of Calicut . 68–81.
425. Book: Rolf Killius . Ritual Music and Hindu Rituals of Kerala . 2006 . B.R. Rhythms . 978-8188827077 . 61.
426. Book: Sreedhara Menon, A. . Kerala Charitram . DC Books . 2007 . 978-8126415885 . 2007 . Kottayam . 19 July 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141403/https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 . 13 November 2021 . live.
427. Book: Chummar Choondal . Kerala Folk Literature . 1980 . Kerala Folklore Academy.
428. Book: A Sreedhara Menon . A Survey Of Kerala History . 2007 . DC Books . 978-8126415786 . 80–.
429. Book: Pratiyogita Darpan . Pratiyogita Darpan . 2006 . Pratiyogita Darpan . 624.
430. Book: Purāṇam . 2004 . All-India Kasiraja Trust. . 17.
431. Book: Cultural Heritage of Kerala . 2008 . D.C. Books . 978-8126419036 . 66.
432. News: Praveen . M. P. . Myth, mystique, and traditions of Onam . 12 November 2015 . The Hindu . 8 September 2011.
433. Web site: Vallamkali – Resplendent Water Regattas of Kerala Kerala Boat Races Onam Kerala Backwaters Kerala . 9 June 2021. Kerala Tourism . en.
434. Book: Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. . Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage . 2013 . Biju Mathew . 978-8192128443 . 535.
435. Book: A Biblical Approach to Indian Traditions and Beliefs . 2008 . Armour Publishing Pte Ltd . 978-9814222396 . 90.
436. Book: J Mohapatra . Wellness In Indian Festivals & Rituals . 2013 . Partridge Pub . 978-1-4828-1690-7 . 142.
437. Book: Gouri Lakshmi Bayi (Princess.) . Thulasi garland . 1998 . Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan . 978-8172761103.
438. Classical Dance Art Forms of Kerala . Kala Menon . Sruti Ranjini . November 2004 . 14 . 1 . 11 . 7 February 2022 . 4 March 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091717/http://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf . dead .
439. "Thirayattam" (Folklore Text-Malayalam), State Institute of language, Kerala
440. Book: A Sreedhara Menon . Cultural heritage of Kerala . 17 November 2012 . 2008 . D C Books . 978-8126419036 . 106.
441. Book: Motilal (UK) Books of India . Tourist Guide Kerala . 17 November 2012 . 2008 . Sura Books . 978-8174781642 . 8.
442. Book: Kāvālaṃ Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar . Folklore of Kerala . 17 November 2012 . 1991 . National Book Trust, India . 146 . 978-8123725932.
443. Book: Asha Kasbekar . Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle . 17 November 2012 . 2006 . ABC-CLIO . 978-1-85109-636-7 . 43–44.
444. Book: The Legacy of Kerala . A. Sreedhara Menon . D C Books . 1982 . 978-8126421572 . 48–51 . 30 May 2015.
445. Book: Richard Schechner . Willa Appel . By Means of Performance: Intercultural Studies of Theatre and Ritual . 18 November 2012 . 1990 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-33915-5 . 145.
446. Book: Simon Broughton . Mark Ellingham . Richard Trillo . World Music Volume 2 Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific: The Rough Guide . 18 November 2012 . 2000 . Rough Guides . 978-1-85828-636-5 . 97.
447. Book: The Legacy of Kerala . A. Sreedhara Menon . D C Books . 1982 . 978-8126421572 . 41 . 30 May 2015.
448. Book: Menon, Sreedhara . Cultural Heritage of Kerala . D C Books . 2008 . 978-8126419036 . 128–29 . 30 May 2015.
449. Book: Datta, Amaresh . Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature . Sahitya Akademi . 1987 . 978-8126018031 . 751–53.
450. News: Gangadhar . V. . Magic of Sophia Loren . https://web.archive.org/web/20031130011344/https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm . dead . 30 November 2003 . 2 October 2003 . Sunday Magazine . . Chennai, India . 18 January 2015.
451. Book: Sura's Year Book 2006 . Subburaj V.V.K . 620 . 978-8172541248 . Sura Books . 30 May 2015.
452. News: Jnanpith Awards for ONV Kurup, Akhlaq Khan Shahryar . 24 September 2014 . The Times of India . 24 September 2014.
453. Web site: Jnanpith Award Winners | UPSC Guide . https://web.archive.org/web/20121219193030/https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners . dead . 19 December 2012 . upscguide.com . 24 September 2014.
454. Book: P. K. Parameswaran Nair . History of Malayalam literature . 18 November 2012 . 1967 . Sahitya Akademi . 296.
455. Book: Sigfried J. de Laet . History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century . 18 November 2012 . 1994 . UNESCO . 978-9231028137 . 407.
456. Book: K. M. George . Eng when Poetry Comes . 18 November 2012 . 1998 . Sahitya Akademi . 978-8126004133 . 58.
457. Web site: Cherussery (Krishnagadha) Malayalam author books . keralaliterature.com . https://web.archive.org/web/20190407052549/https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php%3Fauthid%3D1473 . 7 April 2019 . dead.
458. News: The Charms of Poonthanam Illam . Arun Narayanan . 25 October 2018 . The Hindu.
459. Book: A Short History of Malayalam Literature . Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker . 2006 . Thiruvananthapuram . Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala.
460. Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia
461. Book: Krishna Kaimal, Aymanam . Attakatha sahithyam . 1989 . Trivandrum State Institute of Language.
462. News: The river sutra . Binoy . Rasmi . 27 September 2018 . 24 January 2021 . The Hindu.
463. Book: P. K. Parameswaran Nair . History of Malayalam literature . 18 November 2012 . 1967 . Sahitya Akademi . 118–21.
464. Book: Madhubālā Sinhā . Encyclopaedia of South Indian literature . 18 November 2012 . 2009 . Anmol Publ. . 978-8126137404 . 97.
465. Book: John V. Vilanilam . Religious communication in India . 18 November 2012 . 1987 . Kairali Books International . 66.
466. Book: Sukumār Al̲ikkōṭȧ . Mahakavi Ulloor . 18 November 2012 . 1979 . Sahitya Akademi . 52.
467. Book: Indian and Foreign Review . 18 November 2012 . 1983 . Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India . 25.
468. Book: Ke. Eṃ Tarakan . A brief survey of Malayalam literature: history of literature . 18 November 2012 . 1990 . K.M. Tharakan . 41–52.
469. News: Mappila songs cultural fountains of a bygone age, says MT . https://web.archive.org/web/20121108104937/https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm . dead . 8 November 2012 . 31 March 2007 . 15 August 2009 . . Chennai, India.
470. Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007
471. Book: Menon, A. Sreedhara . The legacy of Kerala . 2008 . D C Books . Kottayam, Kerala . 978-81-264-2157-2 . 1st DCB.
472. Web site: August 23, 2010 Archives . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130427073541/https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ . 27 April 2013.
473. Web site: South Asian arts . 15 September 2017.
474. News: Jnanpith given to Akkitham . Naha . Abdul Latheef . 24 September 2020 . 12 June 2021 . The Hindu.
475. News: Celebrated Malayalam poet Akkitham wins 2019 Jnanpith Award . ANI . 29 November 2019 . 12 June 2021 . Business Standard.
476. Book: Subodh Kapoor . The Indian Encyclopaedia: Biographical, Historical, Religious, Administrative, Ethnological, Commercial and Scientific. Mahi-Mewat . 18 November 2012 . 2002 . Cosmo . 978-8177552720 . 4542.
477. Book: Accessions List, South Asia . 18 November 2012 . 1994 . E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi . 21.
478. Book: Indian Writing Today . 18 November 2012 . 1967 . Nirmala Sadanand Publishers . 21.
479. Book: Amaresh Datta . Sahitya Akademi . Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: K to Navalram . 18 November 2012 . 1987 . Sahitya Akademi . 2394 . 978-0-8364-2423-2.
480. Book: Malayalam Literary Survey . 18 November 2012 . 1993 . Kerala Sahitya Akademi . 19.
481. Book: Eṃ Mukundan . C. Gopinathan Pillai . Eng Adityan Radha And Others . 18 November 2012 . 2004 . Sahitya Akademi . 978-8126018833 . 3.
482. Book: Ed. Vinod Kumar Maheshwari . Perspectives On Indian English Literature . 18 November 2012 . 2002 . Atlantic Publishers & Dist . 978-8126900930 . 126.
483. Book: Amit Chaudhuri . Clearing a Space: Reflections On India, Literature, and Culture . 18 November 2012 . 2008 . Peter Lang . 978-1-906165-01-7 . 44–45.
484. News: Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain . . 15 October 1997 . 11 November 2007 . Sarah . Lyall.
485. Book: Murdoch Books Pty Limited . Murdoch Books Test Kitchen . India . 17 November 2012 . 2010 . Murdoch Books . 978-1-74196-438-7 . 10.
486. Book: Majumdar . Consumer Behaviour: Insights From Indian Market . 17 November 2012 . 2010 . PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. . 978-8120339637 . 181.
487. Book: Rachel Muthachen . Regional Indian Recipes . 17 November 2012 . 1970 . Jaico Publishing House . 978-8172240356 . 1.
488. Book: James Newton . Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine . 2012 . 17 November 2012 . Springwood emedia . 978-1-4761-2308-0 . 4–.
489. Book: Vijayan Kannampilly . Essential Kerala Cook Book . 17 November 2012 . 2003 . Penguin Books India . 978-0-14-302950-2 . 10–11.
490. Book: Kerala with Lakshadweep . 17 November 2012 . 2005 . Outlook Publishing . 27 . 978-8189449018.
491. Book: George Koilparampil . Caste in the Catholic community in Kerala: a study of caste elements in the inter rite relationships of Syrians and Latins . 17 November 2012 . 1982 . Dept. of Sociology, St. Teresa's College . 233.
492. Book: Paramatmananda (Swami.) . Talks . 17 November 2012 . 2000 . Mata Amritanandamayi Center . 978-1-879410-79-4 . 24.
493. Web site: Kerala Cuisine . Ecotours . 30 May 2015 . 13 August 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150813003443/http://ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm . dead .
494. Book: The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997 . Georg Thieme Verlag . 112 . GGKEY:BJ6HEPE0NRE.
495. Web site: National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) . International Institute for Population SciencesDeonar . 7 February 2022 . 23 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220223120050/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Kerala.pdf . dead .
496. Web site: General Review . https://web.archive.org/web/20070927070139/https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm . 27 September 2007 . dead . 1 September 2006 . Registrar of Newspapers for India.
497. Book: K. M. George . Eng when Poetry Comes . 17 November 2012 . 1998 . Sahitya Akademi . 978-8126004133 . 186.
498. Web site: The DHS Program – India: Standard DHS, 2015–16 . dhsprogram.com.
499. Web site: National Family Health Survey . rchiips.org . 7 February 2022 . 7 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220307101917/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml . dead.
500. Web site: Delhi ranks top in Internet penetration, Kerala comes second . 6 May 2020 . 27 June 2021 . The Hindu Business Line.
501. Book: Ranjith KS . Nair PR, Shaji H . 2004 . Rural Libraries of Kerala . Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development . Centre for Development Studies . Thiruvananthapuram . 978-8187621812 . 20–21 . 28 December 2008.
502. Web site: Highlights ofTelecom Subscription Data as on 28thFebruary, 2019 . 16 May 2019 . 18 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190418140404/https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.27of2019_0.pdf . dead .
503. Web site: Sports and Games in Kerala . Public Relations Dept, Kerala . 2002 . 9 June 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060428081830/https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm . 28 April 2006.
504. Book: Muay Thai . Meyer & Meyer Verlag . Arnaud Van Der Veere . 2012 . 8 . 978-1-84126-328-1.
505. News: India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller . 25 September 2007 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131106033222/http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm . dead . 6 November 2013 . . Chennai, India .
506. News: Minister convenes high-level meet . https://web.archive.org/web/20090707015857/https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm . dead . 7 July 2009 . . 4 July 2009.
507. News: Ranji Trophy: In historic first, Kerala join defending champions Gujarat in quarter-finals . 28 November 2017 . The Times of India . 19 December 2017.
508. Web site: Salikha . Adelaida . Top FIVE Asian Clubs With Highest Social Media Followers, Up to October 2018 Seasia.co . 17 September 2020. Good News from Southeast Asia . en.
509. Web site: 18 June 2020 . Indian Football: Five most-followed clubs on social media . 10 September 2020 . Khel Now . en-US . 13 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211113014231/https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-clubs-social-media-followers . dead .
510. Web site: Malayalam News – kerala blasters become fifth Asian club with the biggest social media following News18 Kerala, Sports Latest Malayalam News ലേറ്റസ്റ്റ് മലയാളം വാർത്ത . 5 December 2020. malayalam.news18.com. 25 October 2018 .
511. Web site: AIFF Award Player of the Year . https://web.archive.org/web/20090217141248/https://the-aiff.com/awards.php . 17 February 2009 . All India Football Federation . 15 November 2015 . dead.
512. Web site: James Wray . Ulf Stabe . Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football . Monstersandcritics.com . 15 September 2007 . 30 July 2009.
513. Web site: Indian football team suffer humiliating 1–9 defeat to Kuwait . zeenews.india.com . 14 November 2010 . 13 November 2016.
514. Web site: Sportstar . Team . Sahal recalls journey from university football to senior national team . 6 June 2020 . Sportstar . 15 July 2019 . en.
515. Web site: Bipin Singh, Ishan Pandita in 35-man probables list for Oman, UAE friendlies . thescroll.in . 2 March 2021.
516. Web site: Past Winners . https://web.archive.org/web/20120524035900/https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 . 24 May 2012 . All India Football Federation . 9 June 2012.
517. Web site: Kerala State Athletics Association: History . Kerala State Athletics Association . 12 June 2012 . 24 June 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120624082221/http://keralaathletics.org/history.html . dead .
518. Book: The Rough Guide to South India . David Abram . Nick Edwards . Rough Guides . 2004 . 978-1-84353-103-6 . 64.
519. Web site: Jimmy George . Sports Portal . Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080514040141/https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 . 14 May 2008 . dead.
520. Book: P.A. Reddy . Sports Promotion In India . 17 November 2012 . 2005 . Discovery Publishing House . 978-8171419272 . 31–42.
521. News: Irfan . KT . KT Irfan, World Athletics Championships, Moscow . NDTV Sports . https://web.archive.org/web/20130814035243/https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds . 14 August 2013 . dead.
522. Web site: FIFA Event at Kochi: Time is Ticking Away . https://web.archive.org/web/20160308104258/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/FIFA-Event-at-Kochi-Time-is-Ticking-Away/2016/03/07/article3313714.ece . dead . 8 March 2016 . The New Indian Express . 3 April 2016.
523. News: Chaudhuri . Arunava . Trivandrum will host upcoming SAFF Cup in December 2015/January 2016 . 22 December 2015 . SportsKeeda . 2 July 2015.
524. Web site: Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world . https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm . dead . 4 September 2004 . . 20 February 2012.
525. Web site: Pravasi KairaLi Home . https://web.archive.org/web/20141108151228/https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 . 8 November 2014 . Pravasikairali.com . usurped . 11 January 2014.
526. News: 7 February 2014 . Kerala: A vacation in paradise . . 17 January 2023 . 25 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190237/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms . live .
527. Web site: Kerala – The Gateway of India . . 3 January 2012.
528. News: Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime' . Travel Portal of India . 27 January 2009 . 11 June 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110904030433/https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ . 4 September 2011.
529. News: Kerala beats Taj in Google Search Trends for 2012 . Indian Express . 28 December 2012 . 11 January 2012 .
530. Web site: CNN Travel's 19 places to visit in 2019 . CNN Travel . 22 May 2019 . en . 4 April 2022.
531. Web site: Ahmedabad and Kerala on TIME magazine's list of World's Greatest Places of 2022 . India Today. 14 July 2022 .
532. News: 2025-12-27 . This is the only Indian state to make it to the list of ‘World's Top 26 Destinations For 2026’ . 2025-12-30 . The Times of India . 0971-8257.
533. Book: Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. . Kerala Tradition & Fascinating Destinations . 2012 . Biju Mathew Info Kerala Communications Pvt Ltd . 978-8192128481 . 314.
534. Web site: Kerala Family Tour Packages . 6 August 2011 . Admin . 2 July 2019 . 21 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211121233843/https://www.tripays.com/kerala-family-tour-packages/ . dead .
535. Web site: Destination Wise Number of Foreign Tourists Visited Kerala During 2010 . 6 August 2011 . Saju . 24 September 2014.
536. Web site: Government of Kerala, Tourism Department . Tourist statistics – 2008 . 22 October 2010.
537. News: Santhanam K . An ideal getaway . 27 January 2002 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20030623124553/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm . dead . 23 June 2003 . . Chennai, India.
538. Book: Tourism Marketing . Dasgupta Devashish . Pearson Education India . 2011 . 978-8131731826 . 203 . 30 May 2015.
539. Web site: Tourist Statistics – 2006 . Department of Tourism . Government of Kerala . 2006 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195845/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf . 26 June 2008.
540. News: Tourist inflow to Kerala crosses 10 million mark . Business-Standard . 15 November 2015 . 16 May 2012 . Joseph . George.
541. Book: Planning Commission, India . Kerala Development Report . Academic Foundation . 2007 . 978-8171885947 . 47 . 30 May 2015.
542. Web site: Tourist Statistics – 2005 (Provisional) . Department of Tourism . Government of Kerala . 2005 . 11 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf . 26 June 2008.
543. News: Kerala records 6% rise in tourist arrivals despite floods and Nipah virus scare . 14 February 2019 . The Economic Times . 14 August 2019.
544. Web site: The best beaches for driving . David K. . Gibson . BBC Autos . 11 June 2021.
545. Book: Tapan K Panda . Tourism Marketing . ICFAI Books . 2007 . 978-8131404690 . 173–77 . 30 May 2015.
546. News: Kerala: Spellbound by this natural beauty . The Free Press Journal . 2 August 2015 . 27 November 2015.
547. Book: M.R. Biju . Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management . Mittal Publications . 2006 . 978-8183241298 . 151–65 . 30 May 2015.
548. Web site: Padmanabhapuram Palace . Kerala Tourism . 2 December 2016.
549. Web site: Mattancherry Palace . Kerala Tourism . 2 December 2016.