LVM3 explained

Launch Vehicle Mark-3
Manufacturer:ISRO
Country-Origin:India
Cpl:[1]
Height:43.43m (142.49feet)[2] [3]
Diameter:4m (13feet)
Mass:640000kg (1,410,000lb)
Stages:3
Capacities:
Kilos:10000kg (20,000lb)[4]
Kilos:4200kg (9,300lb)[5] [6]
Kilos:3000kg (7,000lb)[7]
Family:Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
Status:Active
Sites:Satish Dhawan SLP
Launches:9
Success:9
Fail:0
Partial:0
Last:24 December 2025
Payloads:
Type:stage
Stageno:First
S200 Boosters
Number:2
Length:25m (82feet)
Diameter:3.2m (10.5feet)
Empty:31000kg (68,000lb) each[8]
Gross:236000kg (520,000lb) each
Propmass:205000kg (452,000lb) each
Engines:Solid S200
Solid:yes
Thrust:5150kN[9]
Total:10300kN
Si: (vacuum)
Burntime:128 s
Type:stage
Stageno:Second
L110
Length:21.39m (70.18feet)[10]
Diameter:4m (13feet)
Empty:9000kg (20,000lb)
Gross:125000kg (276,000lb)
Propmass:116000kg (256,000lb)
Thrust:1692kN[11]
Burntime:203 s
Type:stage
Stageno:Third
C25
Length:13.545m (44.439feet)
Diameter:4m (13feet)
Empty:5000kg (11,000lb)
Gross:33000kg (73,000lb)
Propmass:28000kg (62,000lb)
Thrust:186.36kN
Burntime:643 s
Fuel:LOX /

The Launch Vehicle Mark-3 or LVM3[12] (previously referred as the GSLV Mk III) is a three-stage medium-lift launch vehicle developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit,[13] it is also due to launch crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme.[14] LVM3 has a higher payload capacity than its predecessor, GSLV.[15] [16] [17] [18]

After several delays and a sub-orbital test flight on 18 December 2014, ISRO successfully conducted the first orbital test launch of LVM3 on 5 June 2017 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre.[19]

The total development cost of the project was .[20] In June 2018, the Union Cabinet approved to build 10 LVM3 rockets over a five-year period.[21]

The LVM3 has launched CARE, India's space capsule recovery experiment module, Chandrayaan-2 and Chandrayaan-3, India's second and third lunar missions, and will be used to carry Gaganyaan, the first crewed mission under Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. In March 2022, UK-based global communication satellite provider OneWeb entered into an agreement with ISRO to launch OneWeb satellites aboard the LVM3 along with the PSLV, due to the launch services from Roscosmos being cut off, caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[22] [23] [24] The first launch took place on 22 October 2022, injecting 36 satellites into Low Earth orbit.

History

ISRO initially planned two launcher families, the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle for low Earth orbit and polar launches and the larger Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle for payloads to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The vehicle was reconceptualized as a more powerful launcher as the ISRO mandate changed. This increase in size allowed the launch of heavier communication and multipurpose satellites, human-rating to launch crewed missions, and future interplanetary exploration.[25] Development of the LVM3 began in the early 2000s, with the first launch planned for 2009–2010.[26] [27] [28] The unsuccessful launch of GSLV D3, due to failure in the cryogenic upper stage,[28] delayed the LVM3 development program.[29] [30] The LVM3, although named "GSLV Mark III" during development, features different systems and components from the GSLV Mark II.

To manufacture the LVM3 in public–private partnership (PPP) mode, ISRO and NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) have started working on the project. To investigate possible PPP partnership opportunities for LVM3 production through the Indian private sector, NSIL has hired IIFCL Projects Limited (IPL).[31] On Friday 10 May 2024, NSIL released a request for qualification (RFQ), inviting responses from private partners for the large-scale production of LVM-3.[32] [33] [34] Plans call for a 14-year partnership between ISRO and the chosen commercial entity. The private partner is expected to be able to produce four to six LVM3 rockets annually over the following twelve years, with the first two years serving as the "development phase" for the transfer of technology and know-how.[35]

Vehicle Description

Specifications

SpecificationFirst stage- 2 x S200 Strap-onSecond stage- L110Third stage- C25 CUS
Length25.75 m21.39 m13.545 m
Diameter3.20 m4.0 m4.0 m
Nozzle Diameter3.27 m~1.80 m
PropellantSolid HTPB-based composite propellantUH 25 (75% UDMH, 25% hydrazine) / Nitrogen TetroxideLiquid Hydrogen / Liquid Oxygen
Inert Mass31,000 kg9,000 kg5,000 kg
Propellant Mass 205,000 kg116,000 kg28,000 kg
Launch Mass236,000 kg125,000 kg33,000 kg
Case / Tank MaterialM250 Maraging SteelAluminium Alloy
Segments3NA
Engine(s)S200 LSB2 x Vikas Engine1 x CE-20
Engine TypeSolidGas Generator
Maximum Thrust (SL)5,150 kN1,588 kN186.36 kN
Avg. Thrust (SL)3,578.2 kN
Thrust (Vac.)NA756.5 kN200 kN
Specific Impulse (SL)227 s293 sNA
Specific Impulse (Vac.)274.5 s443 s
Maximum Pressure56.92 bar58.5 bar60 bar
Average Pressure39.90 barNA
Engine Dry WeightNA900 kg588 kg
Altitude(?) ControlFlex Nozzle GimbalingEngine Gimbaling2 Vernier Engines
Area Ratio12.113.99100
Flex Nozzle Length3.474 mNA
Throat Diameter0.886 mNA
Thrust Vector ControlHydro-Pneumatic PistonsNA
Vector Capability+/- 8°NA
Slew Rate10°/sNA
Actuator Load294 kNNA
Engine Diameter0.99 m
Mixture RatioNA1.7 (Ox/Fuel)5.05 (Ox/Fuel)
Turbopump SpeedNA10,000 rmp
Flow RateNA275 kg/s
GuidanceInertial Platform, Closed Loop
Restart CapabilityNANoRCS for Coast Phase
Burn Time130 s200 s643 s
IgnitionT+0 sT+110 s
Stage SeparationPyrotechnic fasteners, Jettison MotorsActive/Passive ColletsNA
Separation TimeT+149 s

S200 solid boosters

The first stage consists of two S200 solid motors, also known as Large Solid Boosters (LSB) attached to the core stage. Each booster is 3.2m (10.5feet) wide, 25m (82feet) long, and carries 207t of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) based propellant in three segments with casings made out of M250 maraging steel. The head-end segment contains 27,100 kg of propellant, the middle segment contains 97,380 kg and the nozzle-end segment is loaded with 82,210 kg of propellants. It is the largest solid-fuel booster after the SLS SRBs, the Space Shuttle SRBs and the Ariane 5 SRBs.

The flex nozzles can be vectored up to ±8° by electro-hydraulic actuators with a capacity of using hydro-pneumatic pistons operating in blow-down mode by high pressure oil and nitrogen. They are used for vehicle control during the initial ascent phase.[36] [37] The hydraulic fluid for operating these actuators is stored in an externally mounted cylindrical tank at the base of each booster.[38] These boosters burn for 130 seconds and produce an average thrust of and a peak thrust of each. The simultaneous separation from core stage occurs at T+149 seconds in a normal flight and is initiated using pyrotechnic separation devices and six small solid-fueled jettison motors located in the nose and aft segments of the boosters.[39] [40] The first static fire test of the S200 solid rocket booster, ST-01, was conducted on 24 January 2010. The booster fired for 130 seconds and had nominal performance throughout the burn. It generated a peak thrust of about .[41] [42] A second static fire test, ST-02, was conducted on 4 September 2011. The booster fired for 140 seconds and again had nominal performance through the test.[43] A third test, ST-03, was conducted on 14 June 2015 to validate the changes from the sub-orbital test flight data.[44] [45]

L110 liquid core stage

The second stage, designated L110, is a liquid-fueled stage that is 21m (69feet) tall and wide, and contains 110MT of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide . It is powered by two Vikas 2 engines, each generating thrust, giving a total thrust of .[11] [46] The L110 is the first clustered liquid-fueled engine designed in India. The Vikas engines uses regenerative cooling, providing improved weight and specific impulse compared to earlier Indian rockets.[39] [47] Each Vikas engine can be individually gimbaled to control vehicle pitch, yaw and roll control. The L110 core stage ignites 114 seconds after liftoff and burns for 203 seconds.[39] [46] Since the L110 stage is air-lit, its engines need shielding during flight from the exhaust of the operating S200 boosters and reverse flow of gases by a 'nozzle closure system' which is jettisoned prior to L110 ignition.[48]

ISRO conducted the first static test of the L110 core stage at its Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) test facility at Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu on 5 March 2010. The test was planned to last 200 seconds, but was terminated at 150 seconds after a leakage in a control system was detected.[49] A second static fire test for the full duration was conducted on 8 September 2010.[50]

C25 cryogenic upper stage

The cryogenic upper stage, designated C25, is in diameter and long, and contains 28MT of propellant LOX and LH2, pressurized by helium stored in submerged bottles.[47] [51] It is powered by a single CE-20 engine, producing 200kN of thrust. CE-20 is the first cryogenic engine developed by India which uses a gas generator, as compared to the staged combustion engines used in GSLV.[52] In LVM3-M3 mission, a new white coloured C25 stage was introduced which has more environmental-friendly manufacturing processes, better insulation properties and the use of lightweight materials.[53] The stage also houses the flight computers and Redundant Strap Down Inertial Navigation System of the launch vehicle in its equipment bay. The digital control system of the launcher uses closed-loop guidance throughout the flight to ensure accurate injections of satellites into the target orbit. Communications system of the launch vehicle consists of an S-Band system for telemetry downlink and a C-Band transponder that allows for radar tracking and preliminary orbit determination are also mounted on the C25. The communications link is also used for range safety and flight termination that uses a dedicated system that is located on all stages of the vehicle and features separate avionics.

The first static fire test of the C25 cryogenic stage was conducted on 25 January 2017 at the ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC) facility at Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu. The stage fired for a duration of 50 seconds and performed nominally.[54] A second static fire test for the full in-flight duration of 640 seconds was completed on 17 February 2017.[55] This test demonstrated consistency in engine performance along with its sub-systems, including the thrust chamber, gas generator, turbopumps and control components for the full duration.[55]

Payload fairing

The CFRP composite payload fairing has a diameter of, a height of and a payload volume of . It is manufactured by Coimbatore-based LMW Advanced Technology Centre.[56] After the first flight of the rocket with CARE module, the payload fairing was modified to an ogive shape, and the S200 booster nose cones and inter-tank structure were redesigned to have better aerodynamic performance.[57] The vehicle features a large fairing with a five-meter diameter to provide sufficient space even to large satellites and spacecraft. Separation of fairing in a nominal flight scenario occurs at approximately T+253 seconds and is accomplished by a linear piston cylinder separation and jettisoning mechanism (zip cord) spanning the full length of PLF which is pyrotechnically initiated. The gas pressure generated by the zip cord expands a rubber below that pushes the piston and cylinder apart, pushing the payload fairing halves laterally away from the launcher. The fairing is made of aluminum alloy featuring acoustic absorption blankets.

Variants and upgrades

Human-rating certification

See main article: Gaganyaan and CE-20. While the LVM3 is being human rated for Gaganyaan project, the rocket was always designed with potential human spaceflight applications in consideration. The maximum acceleration during ascent phase of flight was limited to 4 Gs for crew comfort and a 5m (16feet) diameter payload fairing was used to be able to accommodate large modules like space station segments.[58]

Furthermore, a number of changes to make safety-critical subsystems reliable are planned for lower operating margins, redundancy, stringent qualification requirements, revaluation, and strengthening of components.[59] Avionics improvement will incorporate a Quad-redundant Navigation and Guidance Computer (NGC), Dual chain Telemetry & Telecommand Processor (TTCP) and an Integrated Health Monitoring System (LVHM). The launch vehicle will have the High Thrust Vikas engines (HTVE) of L110 core stage operating at a chamber pressure of 58.5 bar instead of 62 bar. Human rated S200 (HS200) boosters will operate at chamber pressure of 55.5 bar instead of 58.8 bar and its segment joints will have three O-rings each. Electro mechanical actuators and digital stage controllers will be employed in HS200, L110 and C25 stages.[60]

Mating with semi-cryogenic stage

See main article: SE-2000.

The L110 core stage in the LVM3 is planned to be replaced by the SC120, a kerolox stage powered by the SE-2000 engine[61] to increase its payload capacity to 7.5MT to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).[62] The SCE-200 uses kerosene instead of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and has a thrust of around 200 tonnes. Four such engines can be clustered in a rocket without strap-on boosters to deliver up to 10t to GTO.[63] The first propellant tank for the SC120 was delivered in October 2021 by HAL.[64]

The SC120 powered version of LVM3 will not be used for the crewed mission of the Gaganyaan spacecraft.[65] [66] In September 2019, in an interview by AstrotalkUK, S. Somanath, director of Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre claimed that the SE-2000 engine was ready to begin testing. As per an agreement between India and Ukraine signed in 2005, Ukraine was expected to test components of the SE-2000 engine, so an upgraded version of the LVM3 was not expected before 2022.[67] The SE-2000 engine is reported to be based on the Ukrainian RD-810, which is itself proposed for use on the Mayak family of launch vehicles.[68] In 2025, Russia has also offered to integrate the RD-191M engine on future variants of the LVM3.[69]

Induction of upgraded cryogenic stage

The C25 stage with nearly propellant load will be replaced by the C32, with a higher propellant load of . The C32 stage will be re-startable and with uprated CE-20 engine.[70] Total mass of avionics will be brought down by using miniaturised components.[71] On 30 November 2020, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited delivered an aluminium alloy-based cryogenic tank to ISRO. The tank has a capacity of of fuel, and a volume of .[72] [73]

On 9 November 2022, CE-20 cryogenic engine of upper stage was tested with an uprated thrust regime of 21.8 tonnes in November 2022. Along a suitable stage with additional propellant loading this could increase payload capacity of LVM3 to GTO by up to .[74] On 23 December 2022, CE-20 engine E9 was hot tested for a duration of 650 seconds. For the first 40 seconds of the test, the engine was operated at 20.2 tonne thrust level, after this engine was operated at 20 tonne off-nominal zones and then for 435 seconds it was operated at 22.2 tonne thrust level. With this test, the 'E9' engine has been qualified for induction in flight.[75] It is hoped that after introduction of this stage, GTO payload capacity can be raised to 6 tonnes.[76]

See also

External links

Notes and References

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  3. Web site: LVM3. ISRO. en. 20 September 2018.
  4. Web site: GSLV MkIII-M1 Successfully Launches Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft - ISRO . www.isro.gov.in . . 23 July 2019 . 12 December 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191212123035/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/22-jul-2019/gslv-mkiii-m1-successfully-launches-chandrayaan-2-spacecraft . dead .
  5. Web site: GSLV MKIII . 14 March 2024.
  6. Web site: 13 November 2025 . Launch Service Requisition : Understanding Launch Demand . https://web.archive.org/web/20251113162900/https://www.nsilindia.co.in/sites/default/files/NSIL%20Launch%20Requistion%20opportunity.pdf . 13 November 2025.
  7. Web site: Direct Trans-Lunar injection(TLI) payloads capacity of GSLV Mk-3 is around 3000 kg..
  8. Web site: LVM3 . 21 December 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141225031155/http://www.isro.gov.in/launchers/lvm3 . 25 December 2014 . dead .
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  12. Web site: 2022-10-24 . ISRO GSLV Mark-III renamed as LVM-3 . 2023-05-08 . HT Tech . en.
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  20. Web site: 12 August 2015 . Government of India, Department of Space; Lok Sabha Unstarred Question no.3713; GSLV MK-III . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20200129131043/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/lu_3713.pdf . 29 January 2020.
  21. Web site: Government approves Rs 10,000-crore continuation programmes for PSLV, GSLV . The Economic Times . 8 June 2018 . 7 June 2018.
  22. Web site: OneWeb Suspends Launches from Baikonur as Repercussions from Russia's Invasion of Ukraine Grow . 2022-10-15 . en-US.
  23. News: OneWeb partners with Isro to launch satellites using GSLV-MKIII, PSLV . The Economic Times . 11 October 2021 . 26 December 2021.
  24. Web site: NSIL/ISRO and OneWeb to collaborate for taking Digital Connectivity to every Corner of the World . OneWeb . 26 December 2021.
  25. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/isro-not-to-fly-living-being-before-actual-manned-space-mission-official-1916654 ISRO Not To Fly Living Being Before Actual Manned Space Mission: Official
  26. Web site: Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No.3713 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200129131043/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/lu_3713.pdf . 29 January 2020 . The GSLV MkIII programme was initiated in 2002 as a heavy-lift launch vehicle to launch communications satellites weighing up to 4 tons into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) within a time frame of 7 years..
  27. News: 2002-08-17 . Development of GSLV-Mk III approved . 2024-03-22 . The Economic Times . 0013-0389.
  28. Web site: India's GSLV Mk-3 First Flight Pushed Back to April 2014. 4 April 2013. 19 December 2014. Sawfnews. usurped. https://web.archive.org/web/20130410172341/http://www.sawfnews.com/Health/70695.aspx. 10 April 2013.
  29. News: Pulakkat . Hari . GSLV Mark III launch: Why ISRO's biggest challenge will be at the end of this month . The Economic Times . 2022-08-23 . Isro had gone through a difficult period a few years ago, when a launch of its GSLV Mark II failed. This failure had its impact on GSLV Mark III as well. “Because we had problems with Mark II,” says Isro chairman Kiran Kumar, “we had to rework some facilities of Mark III for Mark II. So Mark III got slightly delayed.”.
  30. Web site: GSLV Mk-III to put India on top . 2022-08-23 . The New Indian Express . 26 February 2017 . The failure of GSLV-D3 in 2010, where the first indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) was flight-tested, impacted the C25 stage programme due to the priority assigned for the additional investigation tests and added qualification tests demanded on CUS engine systems..
  31. Web site: 19 January 2024 . NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) and ISRO convene Stakeholders' Conference for manufacturing the Heaviest Launcher LVM-3 of ISRO, under a PPP partnership with Indian Industry to meet the emerging Global Launch Service market needs .
  32. Web site: Pillai . Soumya . ThePrint . 2024-05-11 . ISRO commercial arm invites private players to build LVM3 rocket that delivered Chandrayaan mission . 2024-05-11 . ThePrint . en-US.
  33. Web site: Simhan . T. E. Raja . 2024-05-10 . NSIL releases RFQ document inviting industry players to productionalise ISRO's heavy lift launcher LVM3 . 2024-05-11 . www.thehindubusinessline.com . en.
  34. Web site: 2024-05-10 . India's NSIL partners with private sector to boost LVM3 production . 2024-05-11 . India Today . en.
  35. Web site: Dutt . Anonna . 2024-05-27 . LVM3 commercialisation is a big step forward, at right time for India, say experts . 2024-05-27 . The Indian Express . en.
  36. Web site: S200 solid booster development . 11 May 2021.
  37. News: GSLV Mark III faces its first experimental flight. N. Gopal Raj. The Hindu. 3 December 2014 .
  38. Web site: LVM3-CARE mission brochure . 11 May 2021 . 11 October 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211011095054/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/LVM-3/CARE/files/assets/common/downloads/LVM3-brochure.pdf . dead .
  39. Web site: GSLV Mk. III Launch Vehicle Overview. Spaceflight 101. 11 February 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180211032829/http://www.spaceflight101.net/gslv-mk-iii.html. 11 February 2018. Wayback Machine.
  40. Web site: ISRO Press Release: S200 First Static Test (S-200-ST-01). 17 June 2017. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130311191452/http://isro.org/pressrelease/contents/2010/pdf/S200_STATIC_TEST-01.pdf. 11 March 2013.
  41. Web site: Successful static testing of Solid Propellant Booster Rocket Stage S200 for GSLV Mk III Launch Vehicle. www.isro.gov.in. en. 12 February 2018. 11 October 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211011094949/https://www.isro.gov.in/update/24-jan-2010/successful-static-testing-of-solid-propellant-booster-rocket-stage-s200-gslv-mk. dead.
  42. Web site: Isro successfully tests world's 3rd largest solid booster. dna. 4 October 2014.
  43. Web site: Second Static Testing of Solid Propellant Booster Rocket Stage S200 for GSLV-Mk III Successfully Conducted. VSSC.gov.in. https://web.archive.org/web/20180212155855/http://www.vssc.gov.in/VSSC_V4/images/NewsLetter/apr2011-dec2011/article4.htm. 12 February 2018. 12 February 2018.
  44. News: విజయవంతంగా భూస్థిర పరీక్ష. 15 June 2015. Sakshi. 12 February 2018. en.
  45. News: Static test of S200 motor successful. Staff Reporter. 15 June 2015. The Hindu. 12 February 2018. en-IN. 0971-751X.
  46. Web site: L110 test to follow S200. IndianSpaceWeb. 4 January 2010. 15 October 2014.
  47. http://www.isro.org/launchers/lvm3 LVM3
  48. Web site: Nozzle closure system for gsLVM3 launch vehicle . ARMS 2008 . 11 May 2021.
  49. Web site: ISRO successfully conducts static testing of new age rocket. The Hindu. 8 September 2010 . 4 October 2014.
  50. Web site: ISRO Press Release:Successful Static Testing of L 110 Liquid Core Stage of GSLV - Mk III. 17 June 2017. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20140202232751/http://www.isro.org/pressrelease/scripts/pressreleasein.aspx?Sep08_2010. 2 February 2014.
  51. Web site: Cryogenic Gas Bottle Development & Realization - Role of non-destructive evaluation . 11 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210511172507/https://www.ndt.net/article/nde-india2016/papers/A206.pdf . 11 May 2021.
  52. Web site: Why ISRO's New Engine and Mk III Rocket Are Reasons to Forget 1990 Cryogenic Scandal. TheWire. 11 February 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180211192523/https://thewire.in/138915/cryogenic-ce-20-isro-gslv-mk-iii/. 11 February 2018. Wayback Machine.
  53. Web site: ISRO's C25 cryogenic stage now sports white, ditches black; What's the science behind it?. wionews. 27 March 2023.
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  55. Web site: ISRO Successfully Tests its Cryogenic Stage (C25) for GSLV MkIII for the Flight Duration. Indian Space Research Organisation. 17 June 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170609075332/http://isro.gov.in/update/18-feb-2017/isro-successfully-tests-its-cryogenic-stage-c25-gslv-mkiii-flight-duration. 9 June 2017. dead.
  56. News: . 2024-04-02 . LMW ATC hands over payload to ISRO for GSLV MK - III . 2024-04-03 . The Hindu . en-IN . 0971-751X.
  57. Web site: Department of Space, Government of India. Outcome Budget 2016-17. isro.gov.in. Department of Space, Government of India. 1 June 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20161126142718/http://isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/budget-accounts/outcomebudget2016-2017.pdf. 26 November 2016.
  58. Book: From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey . 9789351776895 . 2.8 2.8 The Next-Generation Launcher: GSLV-Mk III by S. Ramakrishnan . 15 December 2015 . HarperCollins Publishers India . Taking into account the LEO payload capability of up to 10 tonnes feasible with this vehicle, the payload fairing diameter was fixed as 5 metres to accommodate large modules like a space station segment or crewed capsule. Incidentally, considering the possibility of future human space flight missions by India, the boost phase acceleration was capped at 4g, the standard human tolerance level accepted by spacefaring agencies..
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