| Iranian | |
| Also Known As: | Iranic |
| Ethnicity: | Iranian peoples |
| Region: | West Asia, Eastern Europe, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia |
| Familycolor: | Indo-European |
| Fam2: | Indo-Iranian |
| Protoname: | Proto-Iranian |
| Child1: | Western |
| Child2: | Avestan † |
| Child3: | Eastern |
| Iso2: | ira |
| Iso5: | ira |
| Glotto: | iran1269 |
| Glottorefname: | Iranian |
| Lingua: | 58= (phylozone) |
| Map: | File:Iranian languages map.svg |
| Mapcaption: | Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around the Iranian plateau |
| Speakers: | 200 million |
The Iranian languages, or the Iranic languages,[1] [2] are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, mainly in the Iranian Plateau.
The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Avesta predates Old Iranian language, Old Avestan (c. 1500 – 900 BCE)[3] and Younger Avestan (c. 900 – 400 BCE). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires).
In 2005, Ethnologue estimated that there are 86 languages in the group.[4]
| Persian | 92 million | |
| Pashto | 90 million[5] | |
| Kurdish | 28 million | |
| Balochi | 5–8 million | |
| Caspian | 10 million | |
| Luri | 5 million | |
| 150–200 million | ||
The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian, first attested in a third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term, in reference to the Iranian peoples.[6] The Middle-Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning "Aryan", i.e. "of the Iranians").[3] In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta,[7] and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan (os|Ир) and Iron (Ossetian; Ossetic: Ирон).
When used as a linguistic term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language.
Some scholars such as John R. Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category, and Iranian for anything about the modern country of Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic, Finnish from Finnic, or differentiating Turkish and Turkic.[8]
This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen.[9] Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878,[10] and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.[11] [12] [13] [14]
The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:
According to modern scholarship, the Avestan languages are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from Proto-Iranian before the east–west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western.[15]
The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian, which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia, and the Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BCE.
The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan. It was thus in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, such as Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe to the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.
Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia.
Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:[16] the turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.
The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two has survived. These are:
Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below.
Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of Fars) by the inhabitants of Parsa, Persia, or Persis who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.
The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).
In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary.[18] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian" and in one instance, Median (σπάκα "dog").
Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches.[19] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).
Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:[20]
As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:
A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:
It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).
What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.
The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.
Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.[21] The Achomi (Larestani/Khodmooni) language is considered a surviving remains of Pahlavi Middle Persian,[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] as well as Luri, with their respective dialects.
See also: Persian literature, Pashto literature and poetry, Ossetian literature, Kurdish literature and Tajik literature.
Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, there were essential changes in the role of the different dialects. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, Pahlavi, which was associated with the western Sasanian provinces of Spahan and Pars, was replaced by a new variety as the official language of the court. In 875, the Saffarid dynasty was the first in a line of many dynasties to adopt the new prestige language officially.
West Iranian varieties from eastern regions may have had a significant impact on the development of the new standard, which served as the basis for a standardised New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as ibn al-Muqaffa' (8th century) and ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term Dari with the eastern province of Khorasan, Pahlavi for the dialects of the northwestern areas between the province of Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and Pârsi to describe the dialects of Fars (Persia).
These scholars also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty was Khuzi, associated with the western province of Khuzestan; it was likely a late variety of the Elamite language, a language isolate that previously was the official court language of Elam in that region.
The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of the Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. The Tajik alphabet, used to write the Tajik language, was initially Romanized in the 1920s under the Soviet nationalities policy. This was shifted to a Cyrillic script in the 1930s.
The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran, and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Eastern Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, in what is now Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the Eastern Iranian-speaking Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans, had been decisively Slavicised by the various Early Slavs of the region by the 6th century.[29] [30] [31] [32] This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative, Yaghnobi, barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan Range east of Samarkand, Wakhi is spoken by nomadic pastoralists from Afghanistan to China, and Saka survives as Ossetic in Ciscaucasia, which is the sole remnant of the once-predominant Scythian languages of the region. Minority Eastern Iranian languages survive in the Pamir Mountains; Pashto is the only widely-spoken Eastern Iranian language, with at least 90 million speakers.
| English | Zaza | Persian | Tati | Talysh | Gilaki | Mazanderani | Sorani | Kurmanji | Pashto | Balochi | Tat (Caucaus) | Luri | Shughni | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| beautiful | rınd, xasek | zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel | xojir | ghašang | xujīrçī/xujīr | xoşgel, xojir, xejir | ciwan, nayab | rind, delal, bedew, xweşik | x̌kūlay, x̌āista | dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān | qəşəng, şihid | qəşaŋ, xoşgel | xushrui, xagh(fem.)xigh(masc.) | hučihr, hužihr | hužihr | naiba | xvaini, sraiia, srao- | ræsughd |
| blood | goni | xūn | xevn | xun | xun | xun | xwên | xwîn, xûn | wīna | hon | xun | xī(n) | xun | xōn | gōxan | vohuna, vaŋhutāt̰ | tug | |
| bread | nan, non | nān | nun | nun | nön | nun | nan | nan | ḍoḍəi, məṛəi | nān, nagan | nun | nu(n) | gartha | nān | nān | tāiiūiri, drao-naŋh (scared bread) | dzul | |
| bring | ardene | āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!") | vârden, biyordon | varde | hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən | biyârden | hanîn, hawerdin, hênan | anîn | (rā)wṛəl | âurten, yārag, ārag | avardən | o(v)erden, | videu | āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar- | āwāy-, āwar-, bar- | bara- | bara, bar- | xæssyn |
| brother | bıra | barādar | bərâr | bira, boli | bərär, bərâr | berâr, beror | bira | bira | wror | brāt, brās | birar | Gaghe | værod | brād, brâdar | brād, brādar | brātar | brātar- | æfsymær |
| come | ameyene | āmadan | biyâmiyan | ome | həmän, ämön, hömän | biyamona, enen, biyâmuen | hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî) | hatin, were, | rā tləl | āhag, āyag, hatin | amarən | umae(n) | yà | āmadan, awar | awar, čām | āy-, āgam | āgam- | cæwyn |
| cry | bermayene | gerīstan/gerīye | bərma | berame, bame | burmə | berme | giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî) | girîn | žəṛəl | greewag, grehten | girəstən | gerevesen, gereva | náu | griy-, bram- | barmâdan | snuδ, | kæwyn | |
| dark | tari | tārīk, tār | ul, gur, târica, târek | toki | zuləmât, tärik | tār, siyo, zolamât | tarî/tarîk | tarî | skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara | tār | tariki | tārīk | torice | tārīg/k | tārīg, tārēn | tārīk | sāmahe, sāma | tar |
| daughter | keyne, çêne/çêneke | doxtar | titiye, dətar | kinə, kila | lâku, kör (girl) dətər (daughter) | kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter) | kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî) | dot, keç | lūr | dohtir, duttag | duxtər | doxter | rezin | duxtar | duxt, duxtar | duxδar | čyzg (Iron), kizgæ (Digor) | |
| day | roce, roje, roze | rūz | revj, ruz | ruj | ruz, ruj | ruz, ruj | řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî) | roj | wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z) | roç | ruz | ru | ruz | rōz | raucah- | raocah- | bon | |
| do | kerdene | kardan | kardan, kordan | karde | gudən, kudən, kördən | hâkerden, hâkorden | kirdin | kirin | kawəl | kanag, kurtin | saxtən | kerde | chideu | kardan | kartan | kạrta- | kәrәta- | kænyn |
| door | ber, keyber, çêber | dar | darvâca | bə | bər | dar, loş | derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî) | derî | wər, dərwāza | dar, gelo, darwāzag | dər | dər, dar | dêve | dar | dar, bar | duvara- | dvara- | dwar |
| die | merdene | mordan | bamarden | marde | murdən, mərdən | bamerden | mirdin | mirin | mrəl | mireg, murten | mürdən | morde | mideu | murdan | mạriya- | mar- | mælyn | |
| donkey | her | xar | astar, xar | hə, hər | xər | xar | ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî) | ker | xər | har, her, kar | xər | xər | marcabe | xar | kaθβa | xæræg | ||
| eat | werdene | xordan / xurāk | harden | harde | xördən, xöndən | xerâk / baxârden | xwardin | xwarin | xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl | warag, warâk, wārten | xardən | harde | xideu | parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg | parwarz / xwâr | hareθra / CE-, at- | xærinag | |
| egg | hak, akk | toxm, xāya ("testicle") | merqâna, karxâ | morqana, uyə | murqönə, murqänə | merqâne, tîm, balî | hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî) | hêk | hagəi | heyg, heyk, ā morg | xaykərg | xā'a | tarmurx | toxmag, xâyag | taoxmag, xâyag | taoxma- | ajk | |
| earth | erd | zamīn | zemin | zamin | zəmi, gəl, bunə | zamîn, bene | zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd | erd, zevî | d͡zməka (md͡zəka) | zemin, degār | xari | zemi | zimath | zamīg | zamīg | zam- | zãm, zam, zem | zæxx |
| evening | şan | begáh | nomâzyar, nomâšon | shav | şänsər | nemâşun | êware, îware (Pehlewanî) | êvar, şev | māx̌ām (māš̥ām) | begáh | şangum | evāra | véga | ēvārag | êbêrag | arəzaŋh | izær | |
| eye | çım | čashm | coš | čaş,gelgan | çum | çəş, bəj | çaw/çaş | çav | stərga | cham, chem | çüm | tīya, çaş | çem | čašm | čašm | čaša- | čašman- | cæst |
| father | pi, pêr | pedar, bābā | piyar, piya, dada | piya, lala, po | pér | pîyer, pîyar, per | bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî) | bav, bab | plār | pet, pes | piyər | bua | tat | pidar | pid | pitar | pitar | fyd |
| fear | ters | tars, harās | târs | tars | tərs | taşe-vaşe, tars | tirs | tirs | wēra (yara), bēra | turs, terseg | tərsi | ters | hoge | tars | tars | tạrsa- | tares- | tas |
| fiancé | waşti | nāmzād | numzâ | nomja | nömzət | numze | desgîran,xwşavest | dergistî | čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine] | nāmzād | nükürdə | xîsmenz | – | – | para-dāta (affianced) | usag | ||
| fine | weş, hewl | xoš, xūb, beh | xojir, xar | xoş | xujīr, xurum | xâr, xeş, xojir | xoş | xweş | x̌a (š̥a), səm | wash, hosh | xuş, xas, xub | xu | bashand | dārmag | srīra | xorz, dzæbæx | ||
| finger | engışte/gışte, bêçıke | angošt | anquš | anqiştə | ənguşt, əngüşt | angus | engust, pence,angus, pênce | tilî, pêçî | gwəta | changol, mordâneg, lenkutk | əngüşt | kelek | angiht | angust | aṇgušta | ængwyldz | ||
| fire | adır | ātaš, āzar | taš | otaş | təş | taş | agir/awir, ahir,ayer | agir | wōr (ōr) | âch, atesh, âs | ataş | taş, gor | yoç | âdur, âtaxsh | ādur | âç- | ātre-/aēsma- | art |
| fish | mase | māhi | mâyi | moy | mäyi | mâhî | masî | masî | kab (māhay) | māhi, māhig | mahi | māhi | moie | māhig | māsyāg | masya | kæsag | |
| go | şiayene | ro/şo | šiyen, bišiyan | şe | şön | burden, bašiyen | çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî) | çûn | tləl | shoten | raftən | ro | sà, tideu | şow/row | ay- | ai- | ay-, fra-vaz | cæwyn |
| God | Homa/Huma/Oma | Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq | Xədâ | Xıdo | Xuda | Xedâ | Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y) | Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê | Xodāy (xʷəday) | Xoda, Hwdâ | Xuda | xodā | Xuthoi | Xudā/Yazdān | baga- | baya- | xwycaw | |
| good | hewl, rınd, weş | xub, nīkū, beh | xâr, xojir | çok | xujīr, xurum | xâr, xeş, xojir | baş, çak, xas | baş, rind | x̌ə (š̥ə) | zabr, sharr, jowain | xub, xas | xu | bashand | xūb, nêkog, beh | vahu- | vohu, vaŋhu- | xorz | |
| grass | vaş | sabzeh, giyāh | vâš | alaf | vâş | vâş | giya/gya | giya, çêre | wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə) | rem, sabzag | güyo | sozi, çame | woh | giyâ | giya | viş | urvarā | kærdæg |
| great | gırd/gırs, pil | bozorg | pilla | yol, yal, vaz, dıjd | pilâ, pillə, pille | gat, pilla | gewre,mezin | mezin, gir | lōy, stər | mastar, mazan,tuh | kələ | gap | wazmin | wuzurg, pīl, yal | vazraka- | mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi | styr | |
| hand | dest | dast | bâl | dast | dəs, bâl | das, bāl | dest, des | dest | lās | dast | dəs | das | thust | dast | dast | dasta- | zasta- | k'ux / arm |
| head | ser | sar | kalla | sə, sər | kəlle, sər | kalle, sar | ser | ser | sər | sar, sarag, saghar | sər | sar | cile, cale | sar | kalli | sairi | sær | |
| heart | zerri/zerre | del | dəl | dıl | dīl, dəl, qlf | del, zel, zil | dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil | dil | zṛə | dil, hatyr | dül | del | dile, zorth | dil | dil | zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš | zærdæ | |
| horse | estor/ostor/astor | asb | asb, astar | asp | əsb, əsp | asp, as | asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir | hesp | ās [male], aspa [female] | asp | əs | asb | vorge | asp, stōr | asp, stōr | aspa | aspa- | bæx |
| house | key/çê | xāne | kiya | ka | sərə, xöne | sere, kime, xene | mał, xanû, xanig, ghat | xanî, mal | kor | ges, dawâr, log | xunə | huna | chide | xânag | demāna-, nmāna- | xædzar | ||
| hungry | vêşan/veyşan | gorosne, goşne | vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ | vahşian | vəşnä, viştâ | veşnâ, veşnâsâr | birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî) | birçî, birsî (behdînî) | lwəǵa (lwəẓ̌a) | shudig, shud | gisnə | gosna | maghzönch | gursag, shuy | veşnâg | ṣ̌uδ | ||
| language (also tongue) | zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan | zabān | zobun, zəvân | zivon | zəvön, zuvön, zuvän | zivun, zebun, tok | ziman, zuwan | ziman | žəba | zewān, zobān | zuhun | zevu | zive | zuwān | izβān | hazâna- | hizvā-, zafana (mouth) | ævzag |
| laugh | huyayene | xande | xurəsen, xandastan | sıre | purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən | rîk, baxendesten, xanne | kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene | kenîn | xandəl/xənda | hendag, xandag | xəndə | xana | shinteu | xande, xand | karta | Syaoθnāvareza- | xudyn | |
| life | cuye, weşiye | zendegi, jan | zindәgi | jimon | zīndəgī, zīvəş | zindegî, jan | jiyan, jîn | jiyan | žwənd | zendegih, zind | həyat | zeŋei | zindage, umre | zīndagīh, zīwišnīh | žīwahr, žīw- | gaēm, gaya- | card | |
| man | mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd | mard | mardak, miarda | merd | mərd, mərdönə | mardî | mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr | mêr, camêr | səṛay, mēṛə | merd | mərd | piyā | chorice, mardina | mard | mard | martiya- | mašīm, mašya | adæjmag |
| moon | aşme, menge (for month) | mâh, mâng, mânk | mâng | mang, owşum | mâng, məng | ma, munek, mong, rojâ | mang, heyv | meh, heyv | spuǵməi (spožməi) | máh | ma | māh | mêst | māh | māh | mâh- | måŋha- | mæj |
| mother | may, mar | mâdar | mâr, mâya, nana | moa, ma, ina | mâr, mär | mâr, nenâ | dayik, dayig | dayik, dê | mor | mât, mâs | may | dā(ya), dāle(ka) | nan | mâdar | dayek | mâtar | mātar- | mad |
| mouth | fek | dahân | duxun, dâ:ân | gəv | dəhən | dâhun, lâmîze, loşe | dem | dev | xula (xʷəla) | dap | duhun, luše | dam | gêve | dahân, rumb | zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh | dzyx | ||
| name | name | nâm | num | nom | nöm | num | naw, nêw | nav | nūm | nâm | num | num | nöme | nâm | nâman | nãman | nom | |
| night | şew | shab | šö, šav | şav | şö, şöv, şəb | şow, şu | şew | şev | špa | šap, shaw | şöü | şo | hab | shab | xšap- | xšap-, naxti | æxsæv | |
| open (v) | akerdene | bâz-kardan, va-kardan | vâz-kardan | okarde | vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən | vâ-hekârden | kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî) | vekirin | prānistəl | pāch, pabozag | vakardən | vākerde(n) | ët chideu | abâz-kardan, višādag | būxtaka- | būxta- | gom kænyn | |
| peace | haşti/aşti | âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish | dinj | aşiş | əşt | âştî, esket | aştî, aramî | aştî, aramî | rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi | ârâm | salaməti, dinci | āş(t)i | salöm | âštih, râmīšn | râm, râmīšn | šiyâti- | rāma- | fidyddzinad |
| pig | xoz/xonz, xınzır | xūk | xu, xuyi, xug | xug | xuk | xî | beraz,goraz | beraz | soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug | khug, huk | xug | xuk | xug | xūk | hū, varāza (boar) | xwy | ||
| place | ca | jâh/gâh | yâga | vira | jâ, jigâ, jigə | jâ, gâ, kolâ | cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî) | cih, geh | d͡zāy | ja, jaygah, hend | cigə, cə | jā | joi | gâh | gâh | gâθu- | gātu-, gātav- | ran |
| read | wendene | xândan | baxânden | hande, xwande | xöndən, xönəsən | baxenden, baxundesten | xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin | xwendin | lwastəl, kōtəl | wánag, wānten | xundən | vane(n) | heideu | xwândan | paiti-pǝrǝs | kæsyn | ||
| say | vatene | goftan, gap(-zadan) | vâten, baguten | vote | gutən, guftən | baowten, boten, bagoten | gutin, witin | gotin | wayəl | gushag, guashten | guftirən, gaf saxtən | gute(n) | lövdeu | guftan, gōw-, wâxtan | gōw- | gaub- | vac, mrū- | dzuryn |
| sister | waye | xâhar/xwâhar | xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr | hova | xâxur, xâxər | xâxer, xâxor, xoar | xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk | xwîşk | xōr (xʷōr) | gwhâr | xuvar | xuar | yàx, yàxbìç | xwahar | xvaŋhar- | xo | ||
| small | qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi | kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz | qijel, ruk | hırd | kuçhī, kujī, kuştə | peçik, biçuk, xerd | giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî) | biçûk, hûr, qicik | kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay | gwand, hurd | küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm | koçek | zulice | kam, rangas | kam | kamna- | kasu, kamna- | chysyl |
| son | lac, laj | pesar, pur | pur, zâ | zoə, zurə | vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy | peser/rîkâ | law/kuř | kur, law, pis | zoy | possag, baç | kuk | kor | puç | pur, pusar | puhr | puça | pūθra- | fyrt |
| soul | roh, gan | ravân, jân | rəvân | con | ruh, jön | ro, jân | can, giyan, rewan, revan | reh, can | sā | rawân | can | jöne | rūwân, jyân | rūwân, jyân | urvan- | ud | ||
| spring | wesar/usar | bahâr | vâ:âr | əvəsor, bahar | vəhâr, bâhâr | vehâr, behâr | behar, wehar | bihar, behar | spərlay | bārgāh | vasal | behār, vehār | bahor | wahâr | vâhara- | vaŋhar | ||
| tall | berz | boland / bârz | pilla | barz, bılınd | burz, bələnd | belen, belend | bilind/berz | bilind/berz | lwəṛ, ǰəg | borz, bwrz | bülünd | beleŋ | beland | buland, borz | bârež | bərəzaṇt̰ | bærzond | |
| ten | des | dah | da | da | dä | da, datâ | deh/de | deh | ləs | dah | də | da | thiste | dah | datha | dasa | dæs | |
| three | hirê/hiri | se | so, se | se, he | su, sə | se, setâ | sê | sê | drē | sey | sə | se | arai | sê | hrē | çi- | θri- | ærtæ |
| village | dewe | deh, wis | döh, da | di | mällə, məhällə, kəläyə | dih, male, kolâ, kande | gund, dêhat, dê, awayî | gund | kəlay | dehāt, helk, kallag, dê | di | de | qishloq | wiž | dahyu- | vîs-, dahyu- | vîs | qæw |
| want | waştene | xâstan | begovastan, jovastan | piye | xäsən, xästən | bexâsten, bexâsti | xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî) | xwestin | ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl / ɣ(ʷ)uxš̥təl | loath, loteten | xastən, vayistən | hāse | forteu | xwâstan | ūna, ainišti | fændyn | ||
| water | awe/awk, owe, ou | âb | âv, ö | ov, wat(orandian dialect) | ow, âv | ow, ou, u | aw | av | obə/ubə | âp | ou | ow | haç | âb/aw | aw | âpi | avō- | don |
| when | key | key | key | keyna | kén, kəy | ke, kemin, geder | key, kengî(Hewlêrî) | kengê, kîngê | kəla | kadi, ked | key, çüvəxti | ke | çavaxt | kay | ka | cim- | kæd | |
| wind | va | bâd | vâ | vo | vâ | vâ | ba, wa (Pehlewanî) | ba | siləi | gwáth | var | bād | huz | wâd | wa | vāta- | dymgæ / wad | |
| wolf | verg | gorg | varg | varg | vərg | verg, verk | gurg, | gur | lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥) | gurk | gürg | gorg | urge/urj | gurg | varka- | vehrka | birægh | |
| woman | cıni/ceni | zan | zeyniye, zenak | jen, jiyan | zən, zənək, zunönə | zenā | jin, afret, zindage,gyian | jin | jənəi, njləi (lit. Girl)x̌əd͡za/š̥əd͡za | jan, jinik | zən | zena | ghenice/ghinice, caxoi | zan | žan | gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, | sylgojmag / us | |
| year | serre | sâl | sâl | sor, sal | sâl | sâl | sal/sał | sal | kāl | sâl | sal | sāl | sol | sâl | θard | ýāre, sarәd | az | |
| yes / no | ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni | baleh, ârē, hā / na, née | ahan / na | ha / ne, na | əhâ/nä, nâ | are, ehe / nâ, no | bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr | erê, belê, a / na | Hao, ao, wō / na, ya | ere, hān / na | həri, hə / nə | a, ā / na | ön / nai, nå | ōhāy / ne | hâ / ney | yâ / nay, mâ | yā / noit, mā | o / næ |
| yesterday | vızêr | diruz | azira, zira, diru | zir, zinə | dîru | dîruz, aruz | dwênê, dwêke | duho | parun | zí | deydi | diru | biyor | dêrûž | diya(ka) | zyō | znon | |
| English | Zaza | Persian | Tati | Talyshi | Gilaki | Mazandarani | Sorani | Kurmanji | Pashto | Balochi | Tat | Luri | Shughni | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian |
