Ottawa Explained

Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It is located in the southern portion of the province of Ontario, at the confluence of the Ottawa River and the Rideau River. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, and forms the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area (CMA) and the National Capital Region (NCR).^[11] Ottawa had a city population of 1,017,449 and a metropolitan population of 1,488,307, making it the fourth-largest city and fourth-largest metropolitan area in Canada.^{[12] [13]}

Ottawa is the political centre of Canada and the headquarters of the federal government. The city houses numerous foreign embassies, key buildings, organisations, and institutions of Canada's government; these include the Parliament of Canada, the Supreme Court, the residence of Canada's viceroy, and the Office of the Prime Minister.^[14]

Founded in 1826 as "Bytown", and incorporated as "Ottawa" in 1855,^[15] its original boundaries were expanded through numerous annexations and were ultimately replaced by a new city incorporation and amalgamation in 2001. The municipal government of Ottawa is established and governed by the City of Ottawa Act of the Government of Ontario. It has an elected city council across 24 wards and a mayor elected city-wide, each elected using the first-past-the-post voting election system.^[16]

Ottawa has the highest proportion of university-educated residents among Canadian cities^[17] and is home to several colleges, universities, and research and cultural institutions, including the University of Ottawa, Carleton University, Algonquin College, Collège La Cité, the National Arts Centre, and the National Gallery of Canada, as well as numerous national museums, monuments, and historic sites.^[18] It has a generally high standard of living^[19] and is one of the most visited cities in Canada, with over 11 million visitors annually, including over 6 million vacationers.^{[20] [21] [22]}

Etymology

The city name "Ottawa" was chosen in 1855 in reference to the Ottawa River, whose name is itself derived from the Algonquin adawe, meaning "to trade".^{[23] [24]} In modern Algonquin, the city is known as Odàwàg.^[25]

History

See main article: History of Ottawa.

Early history

The Ottawa Valley became habitable around 10,000 years ago, following the natural draining of the Champlain Sea.^{[26] [27]} The first evidence of human presence in the Ottawa Valley were spearpoints dated 8000-8500 years before present. By 6000 years before present, there were robust trading and communications networks. Approximately 3000-3500 years before present, there is definitive evidence of continuously existing settlements, including likely hearths and heavy tools. In closer proximity to the modern bounds of the City of Ottawa, there has been documentation of specific settlements at the mouth of the Gatineau River dating back to 3000-3500 years prior to post-Columbian contact.^[28] These findings suggest that these Algonquin people were engaged in foraging, hunting and fishing, but also trade and travel. Three major rivers meet within Ottawa, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. This period ended with the arrival of settlers and colonization of North America by Europeans during and after the 15th century.^[29]

European exploration and early development

In 1610, Étienne Brûlé became the first documented European to navigate the Ottawa River, passing what would become Ottawa on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls in the area and about his encounters with the Algonquin people.

The first non-Indigenous settlement in the area was created by Philemon Wright, a New Englander. Wright founded a lumber town in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from the present-day city of Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, also created an agricultural community, which was named Wright's Town. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade (soon to be the area's most significant economic activity) by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City.

In 1820s, news of the British military's impending construction of the Rideau Canal led to land speculation. In 1827, the town that had developed around canal construction was named after the British military engineer Colonel, John By, who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project.^[30] The Rideau canal provided a secure route between Montreal and Kingston on Lake Ontario. It bypassed a vulnerable stretch of the St. Lawrence River bordering the state of New York that had left re-supply ships bound for southwestern Ontario easily exposed to enemy fire during the War of 1812.

Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of today's Parliament Hill. He also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named "Upper Town" west of the canal and "Lower Town" east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically, "Upper Town" was predominantly English-speaking and Protestant, whereas "Lower Town" was mostly French, Irish and Catholic.^[31]

Bytown's population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was completed in 1832.^[32] Bytown's early pioneer period saw Irish labour unrest during the Shiners' War from 1835 to 1845^{[33] [34]} and political dissension that was evident in the 1849 Stony Monday Riot, when Tories objected to consideration of Bytown as the capital of the Province of Canada.^[35] In 1855, Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city. William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk, serving from 1844 to 1891, guiding Ottawa through 36 years of development, leading the hiring of key municipal roles, founding civic organizations, and proposing a set of by-laws for the city.^{[36] [37] [38]}

Selection as capital

The selection of Ottawa as a capital city predates Confederation. The choice was contentious and not straightforward, with the parliament of the United Province of Canada holding more than 200 votes over several decades to attempt to settle on a legislative solution to the location of its capital.

The governor-general of the province designated Kingston as the capital in 1841. However, the major population centres of Toronto and Montreal, as well as the former capital of Lower Canada, Quebec City, all had legislators dissatisfied with Kingston as the capital. Anglophone merchants in Quebec were the leading group supportive of the Kingston arrangement.^[39] In 1842, a vote rejected Kingston as the capital,^[40] and study of potential candidates included the then-named Bytown, but that option proved less popular than Toronto or Montreal.^[41] In 1843, a report of the Executive Council recommended Montreal as the capital as a more fortifiable location and commercial centre; however, the governor-general refused to execute a move without a parliamentary vote.^[42] In 1844, the Queen's acceptance of a parliamentary vote moved the capital to Montreal.^[43]

In 1849, after an Orange mob burned the Parliament building in Montreal, several votes were held on a permanent location. Kingston and Bytown were again considered potential capitals. However, the winning proposal was for two cities to share capital status and the legislature to alternate sitting in each: Quebec City and Toronto, in a policy known as perambulation.^{[44] [45]} Logistical difficulties made this an unpopular arrangement,^[46] and an 1856 vote passed for the lower house of parliament to relocate permanently to Quebec City. However the upper house refused to approve funding.^[47]

The funding impasse led to the ending of the legislature's role in determining the seat of government. The legislature requested the Queen determine the seat of government. The Queen then acted on the advice of her governor general Edmund Head,^[48] who, after reviewing proposals from various cities, selected the recently renamed Ottawa. The Queen sent a letter to colonial authorities selecting Ottawa as the capital, effective 31 December 1857. George Brown, briefly a co-premier of the Province of Canada, attempted to reverse this decision but was unsuccessful. The Parliament ratified the Queen's choice in 1859, with Quebec serving as interim capital from 1859 to 1865.^{[49] [50]} The relocation process began in 1865, with the first session of Parliament held in the new buildings in 1866. The buildings were generally well received by legislators.^[51]

Ottawa was chosen as the capital in 1857 for two primary reasons.^[52] First, Ottawa's isolated location, surrounded by dense forest far from the Canada–US border and situated on a cliff face, would make it more defensible from attack.^{[53] [54]} Second, Ottawa was on the border between Canada West and Canada East, making the selection an important political compromise.^{[55] [56]}

Other minor considerations also favoured Ottawa. Despite the city's regional isolation, there was water transportation access from spring to fall, both to Montreal via the Ottawa River, and to Kingston via the Rideau Waterway.^[57] Additionally, by 1854 it also had a modern all-season railway (the Bytown and Prescott Railway) that carried passengers, lumber and supplies 82km (51miles) to Prescott on the Saint Lawrence River and beyond. Ottawa's small size was also thought to be less prone to politically motivated mob violence, as had happened in the previous Canadian capitals. Finally, the government already owned the land that eventually became Parliament Hill, which it thought would be an ideal location for the Parliament buildings.

The original Parliament buildings, which included the Centre, East and West Blocks, were constructed between 1859 and 1866 in the Gothic Revival style.^[58] At the time, this was the largest North American construction project ever attempted and Public Works Canada and its architects were not initially well prepared for the relatively shallow-lying bedrock and had to redesign architectural drawings, leading to delays. The Library of Parliament and Parliament Hill landscaping were completed in 1876.^[59]

Post-Confederation

Starting in the 1850s, entrepreneurs known as lumber barons began to build large sawmills, which produced tens of millions of board feet of timber, such as producing 39 million in 1855 after the USA began accepting imports, against approximately 480 million board feet imported from across Canada in Britain a decade earlier, and eventually rising to 613 million in the early 20th century.^{[60] [61]} Rail lines built in 1854 connected Ottawa to areas south and, from 1886 to the transcontinental rail network via Hull and Lachute, Quebec.^[62] By 1885 Ottawa was the only city in Canada whose downtown street-lights were powered entirely by electricity.^{[63] [64]} In 1889, the Government developed and distributed 60 "water leases" (still in use) to mainly local industrialists which gave them permission to generate electricity and operate hydroelectric generators at Chaudière Falls.^[65] Public transportation began in 1870 with a horsecar system, overtaken in the 1890s by an electric streetcar system that operated until 1959 and peaked at trackage of 90.5km, including an extension to Hull.^[66]

The Hull–Ottawa fire of 1900 destroyed two-thirds of Hull, including major lumber employers and main street buildings.^[67] It began as a chimney fire in Hull on the north side of the river, but due to wind, spread rapidly throughout the widespread wooden buildings. In Ottawa, it destroyed about one-fifth of the buildings from the Lebreton Flats south to Booth Street and down to Dow's Lake.^[68] The fire had a disproportionate effect on west-end lower-income neighbourhoods. It had also spread among many lumber yards, a major part of Ottawa's economy. The fire destroyed approximately 3200 buildings and caused an estimated $300 million in damage (in 2020 Canadian dollars).^[69] An estimated 14% of Ottawans and 40% of Hull residents were left homeless.^[70] On 1 June 1912, the Grand Trunk Railway opened both the Château Laurier hotel and its neighbouring downtown Union Station.^[71] On 3 February 1916, the Centre Block of the Parliament buildings was destroyed by a fire.^[72] The House of Commons and Senate was temporarily relocated to the recently constructed Victoria Memorial Museum, now the Canadian Museum of Nature^[73] until the completion of the new Centre Block in 1927. The centrepiece of the new Parliament Buildings is a dominant Gothic Revival-styled structure known as the Peace Tower.^{[74] [75]}

The location of what is now Confederation Square was a former commercial district centrally located in a triangular area downtown surrounded by historically significant heritage buildings, including the Parliament buildings. It was redeveloped as a ceremonial centre in 1938 as part of the City Beautiful Movement. It became the site of the National War Memorial in 1939 and was designated a National Historic Site in 1984.^[76] A new Central Post Office (now the Privy Council of Canada) was constructed in 1939 beside the War Memorial because the original post office building on the proposed Confederation Square grounds had to be demolished.^{[77] [78]}

Post–Second World War

Ottawa's former industrial appearance was vastly altered by the 1950 Gréber Plan.^[79] Prime Minister Mackenzie King hired French architect-planner Jacques Gréber to design an urban plan for managing development in the National Capital Region, to make it more aesthetically pleasing and a location more befitting for Canada's political centre.^[80] Gréber's plan included the creation of the National Capital Greenbelt,^[81], National Arts Centre^[82] the parkway that would be named the Sir John A. MacDonald parkway and later Kichi Zibi Mikan^[83] and the Queensway highway system. His plan also called for changes in institutions such as moving downtown Union Station (now the Senate of Canada Building) to the suburbs,^[84] the removal of the street car system, the decentralization of selected government offices, the relocation of industries and removal of substandard housing from the downtown. While not every recommendation was actioned, such as a city hall on the east side of the canal,^[85] the plan's open space recommendations did lead to the creation spaces such as the Rideau Canal and Ottawa River pathways.^[86] A major precondition to the creation of the Rideau Canal pathway was the elimination of direct rail service into downtown.

In 1959, the National Capital Commission was established as a Crown Corporation through the 1958 National Capital Act.^{[87] [88]} This marked the creation of a permanent political infrastructure for managing the capital region.

These included plans from the 1899 Ottawa Improvement Commission (OIC), the Todd Plan in 1903, the Holt Report in 1915 and the Federal District Commission (FDC). The National Capital Commission's structure supplanted the Federal District Commission, which was established in 1927 with a 16-year funding commitment but was reliant on the voluntary transfer of municipal planning authorities from the district's municipalities.^{[89] [90]}

From 1931 to 1958, City Hall had been at the Transportation Building adjacent to Union Station (now part of the Rideau Centre).^[91] In 1958, a new City Hall opened on Green Island near Rideau Falls, where urban renewal had recently transformed this industrial location into a green space.^[92] In 2001, Ottawa City Hall returned downtown to a 1990 building on 110 Laurier Avenue West, the home of the now-defunct Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton. This new location was close to Ottawa's first (1849–1877) and second (1877–1931) City Halls.^[93] This new city hall complex also contained an adjacent 19th-century restored heritage building formerly known as the Ottawa Normal School.^[94]

From the 1960s to the 1980s, there was a large increase in construction in the National Capital Region, which was followed by large growth in the high-tech industry during the 1990s and 2000s.^[95] Ottawa became one of Canada's largest high-tech cities and was nicknamed Silicon Valley North.^[96] By the 1980s, Bell Northern Research (later Nortel) employed thousands, and large federally assisted research facilities such as the National Research Council contributed to an eventual technology boom. The early companies led to newer firms such as Newbridge Networks, Mitel and Corel.^{[97] [98]}

In 1991, provincial and federal governments responded to a land claim submitted by the Algonquins of Ontario regarding the unceded status of the land on which Ottawa is situated.^[99] Negotiations have been ongoing, with an eventual goal to sign a treaty that would release Canada from claims for misuse of land under Algonquin title, affirm rights of the Algonquins, and negotiate conditions of the title transfer, with an agreement in principle arranged in 2016.^[100]

21st Century

Ottawa's city limits have expanded over time, including a large expansion effective 1 January 2001, when the province of Ontario amalgamated all the constituent municipalities of the Regional Municipality of Ottawa–Carleton into a single city.^[101] Regional Chair Bob Chiarelli was elected as the new city's first mayor in the 2000 municipal election, defeating Gloucester mayor Claudette Cain.^[102] On 15 October 2001, a diesel-powered light rail transit (LRT) line was introduced on an experimental basis.^[103] Known today as O-Train Line 2, it was dubbed the O-Train and connected downtown Ottawa to the southern suburbs via Carleton University. The decision to extend the O-Train, and to replace it with an electric light rail system, was a major issue in the 2006 municipal elections, where Chiarelli was defeated by businessman Larry O'Brien.^[104] After O'Brien's election, transit plans were changed to establish a series of light rail stations from the east side of the city into downtown, and for using a tunnel through the downtown core.^[105] Jim Watson, the last mayor of Ottawa before the 2001 amalgamation, was re-elected in the 2010 election.^[106]

In October 2012, the City Council approved the final Lansdowne Park plan, an agreement with the Ottawa Sports and Entertainment Group that saw a new stadium, increased green space and housing and retail added to the site.^{[107] [108]} In December 2012, City Council voted unanimously to move forward with the Confederation Line, a light rail transit line, which was opened on 14 September 2019.^{[109] [110]}

In 2020, the city saw a major change in the nature of work due to civil servants without necessary on-site functions moving to online work as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with many government workers shifting to online work.^[111] This arrangement continued until the gradual return to in-person work beginning in 2022, when federal workers returned to two mandatory days in office per week.^[112]

In 2022, a protest movement protesting COVID-19 restrictions drew large numbers of Canadians, including those from outside Ottawa, and leading to the occupation of Wellington Street in Canada's parliamentary precinct.^[113] The movement had associations with the trucking social identity, and was preceded by a "Convoy to Ottawa" phase,^[114] and led to an occupation beginning on January 29th that lasted approximately three and a half weeks, ending after the federal government invoked the Emergencies Act on February 14th and pursued enforcement action against the protesters, such as debanking of over 250 protestor bank accounts and later carrying out arrests on February 19th.^{[115] [116] [117] [118]}

In fall 2022, Mark Sutcliffe was elected as mayor of Ottawa on strength of support from suburban voters, making anti-bike lane policy a key policy point of his election campaign.^[119]

Geography

See main article: Geography of Ottawa.

Districts and neighbourhoods

The present-day city of Ottawa consists of the historic main urban area, as well as other urban, suburban and rural areas within the city's post-amalgamation limits.^[120]

Central Ottawa, Ottawa West and Ottawa East

Central Ottawa and Ottawa East comprise a large portion of the pre-amalgamation city, including, the former city of Vanier, a densely populated, historically francophone, working class enclave, and the former village of Rockcliffe Park, a wealthy residential neighbourhood adjacent to the Prime Minister's official residence at 24 Sussex and the Governor General's residence.^[121] Theese areas the downtown core and older neighbourhoods to the east, west, and south. These vibrant neighbourhoods include the bustling commercial and cultural areas of Old Ottawa South,Centretown, Lower Town, and Sandy Hill, the affluent tree-lined neighbourhoods of The Glebe, Westboro, and New Edinburgh, and the historically blue-collar communities of Hintonburg, Mechanicsville, Carlington, and LeBreton Flats, with a mixture of housing types, artist lofts, and industrial uses. These areas also includes the ethnic enclaves of Chinatown and Little Italy.

Suburbs and outlying communities

Modern Ottawa is made up of eleven historic townships, ten of which are from the former Carleton County and one from the former Russell County.^{[122] [123] [124]} Ottawa city limits are bounded on the east by the United Counties of Prescott and Russell; by Renfrew County and Lanark County in the west; on the south by the United Counties of Leeds and Grenville and the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry; and on the north by the Regional County Municipality of Les Collines-de-l'Outaouais and the City of Gatineau.^{[125] [126]}

The main suburban areas extend a considerable distance to the northeast, southwest and south of the inner-city.^{[127] [128]} These areas also include the former cities of Cumberland, Gloucester (with the large suburban district of Orleans outside the greenbelt split between them), Kanata, and Nepean.^[129] The towns of Stittsville and Richmond within the former Goulbourn Township are to the southwest.^[130] Nepean as a suburb also includes Barrhaven.^[131] The communities of Manotick and Riverside South are on the other side of the Rideau River, and Greely, southeast of Riverside South.

A number of rural communities (villages and hamlets) are also part of the City of Ottawa. Some of these communities are Burritts Rapids; Ashton; Fallowfield; Kars; Fitzroy Harbour; Munster; Carp; North Gower; Metcalfe; Constance Bay and Osgoode. Several towns are within the federally defined National Capital Region but outside of Ottawa's municipal boundaries; these include communities of Almonte, Carleton Place, Embrun, Kemptville, Rockland, and Russell.

Architecture

See main article: Architecture of Ottawa.

Influenced by government structures, much of the city's architecture tends to be formal and functional; the city is also marked by Romantic and Picturesque styles of architecture such as the Parliament Buildings' gothic revival architecture.^[132] Ottawa's domestic architecture contains single-family homes, but also includes smaller numbers of semi-detached houses, rowhouses, and apartment buildings.^[133] Many domestic buildings in Centretown are clad in red brick, with trim in wood, stone, or metal; variations are common, depending on the cultural heritage of the neighbourhoods and the time they were built.^{[134] [135]}

The skyline has been controlled by building height restrictions originally implemented to keep Parliament Hill and the Peace Tower at visible from most parts of the city, and prevented construction of buildings exceeding 150 feet through at least the 1950s. Today, several buildings are slightly taller than the Peace Tower, with the tallest being the Claridge Icon at 143m (469feet).^[136] Many federal buildings in the National Capital Region are managed by Public Works Canada, which leads to heritage conservation in its renovations and management of buildings, such as the renovation of the Senate Building.^{[137] [138] [139]} Most of the federal land in the region is managed by the National Capital Commission; its control of much undeveloped land and appropriations powers gives the NCC a great deal of influence over the city's development.^{[140] [141] [142]}

Climate

Ottawa has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb, Trewartha Dcbo/Dcbc)^[143] with four distinct seasons. The climate falls between Zones 5a and 5b on the Canadian Plant Hardiness Scale.^[144]

Winters are cold and snowy. In January, the coldest month, the average minimum temperature is -14.3 °C (6 °F). Temperatures generally stay below freezing, often for weeks at a time, and snowpack is therefore consistent. Snow is the dominant form of precipitation in the winter, though other forms of precipitation, including freezing rain, are also common. On average, 232 cm (91 in) of snow falls in a year, mainly from November through April. Snow is not unusual in May or October, but it is generally very light and does not accumulate. Outbreaks of polar air often cause frigid temperatures.^[145] On average, there are 16 nights in a year in which the temperature falls below -20 °C (-4 °F). Extremely low temperatures, below -30 °C (-13 °F), occur on average approximately once every two years. Periods of snowfall are generally light, though occasional snowstorms have been known to significantly affect the city, such as in January 2022.

Summers are hot and humid. In July, the hottest month, the average maximum temperature is 27 °C (81 °F). On average, there are 15 days in a year that have temperatures exceeding 30 °C (86 °F). Heatwaves are common and may lead to temperatures in excess of 35 °C (95 °F). Humidity is generally high at all times of the year, but is most noticeable in the summer. On average, there are 23 days in a year with thunderstorms, with the majority occurring in the summer.

Spring and autumn, while transitional, can see extremes in temperature. For example, it is not unusual for the month of May to have nights below freezing, nor is it for temperatures to exceed 30°C (86°F), with September sometimes seeing temperatures in excess of 35°C, October seeing temperatures below freezing, and November temperatures below -10°C.

On average, days with fog are seen 23 days per year, and they are likely to occur in all seasons.

Annual rainfall averages around 757 mm (29.8 in), while total precipitation averages 930 mm (36.6 in). Days with any precipitation is spread fairly evenly throughout the year, but high precipitation days are more common in late summer and early fall.

In a typical year, Ottawa experiences about 2,080 hours of sunshine annually (45% of possible), with June, July and August being the sunniest period after accounting for time between sunrise and sunset.^[146] Prevailing winds are generally from the West.^[147]

Physical geography

Ottawa is situated on the south bank of the Ottawa River and contains the mouths of the Rideau River and Rideau Canal.^[148] The Rideau Canal (Rideau Waterway) first opened in 1832 and is long.^[149] It connects the Saint Lawrence River on Lake Ontario at Kingston to the Ottawa River near Parliament Hill.^[150] It was able to bypass the unnavigable sections of the Cataraqui and Rideau rivers and various small lakes along the waterway due to flooding techniques and the construction of 47 water transport locks between Ottawa and Kingston Mills^[151]

Ottawa is situated in a lowland on top of Paleozoic carbonate and shale and is surrounded by more craggy Precambrian igneous and metamorphic formations. Ottawa has had fluvial deposition of till and sands, leading to the widespread formation of eskers. There are limited distinct features arising from glacial deposits, but Ottawa was affected by the Late Wisconsian advance. Before the draining of the Champlain Sea, the area had high salinity. After the draining of the sea, the area had pine-dominated forests.^[152] Ottawa is located within the Western Quebec Seismic Zone, and while relatively inactive, the city does occasionally experience earthquakes.^{[153] [154] [155] [156] [157]}

Built environment

During part of the winter season the Ottawa section of the canal forms the world's largest skating rink, thereby providing both a recreational venue and a transportation path to downtown for ice skaters (from Carleton University and Dow's Lake to the Rideau Centre and National Arts Centre).^[158] On 29 June 2007, the Rideau Canal was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[159]

The older part of the city (including what remains of Bytown) is known as Lower Town,^[160] and occupies an area between the canal and the rivers. Across the canal to the west lie both Centretown and Downtown Ottawa, which share a border along Gloucester Street.^[161] These core neighbourhoods contain streets such as Elgin and Bank, which fill the role of commercial main streets in the region.^[162]

Centretown is next to downtown, which includes a substantial economic and architectural government presence across multiple branches of government. The legislature's work takes place in the parliamentary precinct, which includes buildings on Parliament Hill and others downtown, such as the Senate of Canada Building.^[163] Important buildings in the executive branch include the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council as well as many civil service buildings.^{[164] [165]} The Supreme Court of Canada building can also be found in this area.^[166]

Across the Ottawa River, which forms the border between Ontario and Quebec, lies the city of Gatineau, itself the result of amalgamation of the former Quebec cities of Hull and Aylmer.^[167] Although formally and administratively separate cities in two different provinces, Ottawa and Gatineau (along with several nearby municipalities) collectively constitute the National Capital Region, which is considered a single metropolitan area.^[168] One federal Crown corporation, the National Capital Commission, or NCC, has significant land holdings in both cities, including sites of historical and touristic importance. The NCC, through its responsibility for planning and development of these lands, has a crucial role in shaping the development of the city.^[169] Around the main urban area is an extensive greenbelt, administered by the NCC for conservation and leisure, and comprising mostly forest, farmland and marshland.^[170]

Demographics

See main article: Demographics of Ottawa.

In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Ottawa had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of, it had a population density of in 2021.^[171]

As of 2021 the Ottawa-Gatineau census metropolitan area (CMA) had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of, it had a population density of in 2021.^[172]

Ottawa's median age of 40.1 is below the provincial and national averages as of 2016. Youths under 15 constituted 16.7% of the total population in 2016, while those of retirement age (65 years and older) made up 15.4%.^[173]

Race, immigrant status and ethnicity

As of 2021, approximately 64.9% of Ottawa's population were white or European, while 2.6% were Indigenous, and 32.5% were visible minorities (higher than the national percentage of 26.5%).^[174]

The 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) number 259,215, 25.9% of the population of Ottawa. Of this immigrant population, the top countries of origin were China (20,320 persons or 7.8%), India (16,200 persons or 6.2%), United Kingdom (14,760 persons or 5.7%), Lebanon (11,900 persons or 4.6%), Philippines (10,505 persons or 4.1%), United States of America (8,795 persons or 3.4%), Haiti (6,710 persons or 2.6%), Syria (6,370 persons or 2.5%), Vietnam (6,155 persons or 2.4%), and Iran (6,000 persons or 2.3%).

Religion

According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Ottawa included:^[175]

• Christianity (528,700 persons or 52.8%)
• Irreligion (316,740 persons or 31.6%)
• Islam (98,920 persons or 9.9%)
• Hinduism (20,300 persons or 2.0%)
• Buddhism (10,800 persons or 1.1%)
• Judaism (10,600 persons or 1.1%)
• Sikhism (6,375 persons or 0.6%)
• Indigenous Spirituality (445 persons or <0.1%)
• Other (8,055 persons or 0.8%)

, around 65% of Ottawa residents described themselves as Christian, with Catholics accounting for 38.5% of the population and members of Protestant churches 25%. Other religions were also present in Ottawa, the most prominent being Islam (6.7%), Hinduism (1.4%), Buddhism (1.3%), and Judaism (1.2%). Those with no religious affiliation represented 22.8%.^[176]

Language

Those who identify their mother tongue as English constitute 58.2 percent, while those with French as their mother tongue make up 12.5 percent of the population.^[177] Regarding respondents' knowledge of one or both official languages, 60.6 percent and 1.4 percent of the population know English and French only, respectively, while 36.4 percent know both official languages.^[178] Bilingualism became official policy for the conduct of municipal business in 2002,^[179] making it the largest city in Canada with both English and French as co-official languages, as Vancouver, Montreal and Toronto do not have official bilingualism policies. An additional 23.1 percent of the population list languages other than English and French as their mother tongue. These include Arabic (4.3%), Mandarin (2.2%), Spanish (1.4%), Italian (0.8%), and many others.^[180]

The overall Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area (CMA) has a larger proportion of French speakers than Ottawa since Gatineau's population's first language is mostly French.^{[181] [182]}

Economy

See also: Economy of Ontario. As of 2015, the region of Ottawa-Gatineau has the sixth-highest total household income of all Canadian metropolitan areas ($82,053), and the Ontario portion more directly overlapping the City of Ottawa has a higher household income ($86,451).^[183] The median household income after taxes in the City of Ottawa is $88,000 in 2020 was higher than the national median of $73,000.^[184] Ottawa's unemployment rate has remained below the national and provincial unemployment rates since 2006, with a rate of 5.2% in April 2022, low compared to the decade preceding.^{[185] [186]} Ottawa is ranked the best city in North America for quality of life by Numbeo, but falls short of other Canadian cities in other rankings such as Vancouver and Toronto in Mercer's rankings.^{[187] [188]}

Ottawa's primary employers are the Public Service of Canada and the high-tech industry, although tourism and healthcare also represent increasingly sizeable economic activities. The federal government is the city's largest employer, employing over 116,000 individuals from the National Capital Region.^[189] The national headquarters for many federal departments are in Ottawa, particularly throughout Centretown and in the Terrasses de la Chaudière and Place du Portage complexes in Hull. The National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa is the main command centre for the Canadian Armed Forces. It hosts the Department of National Defence.^[190] During the summer, the city hosts the Ceremonial Guard, which performs functions such as the Changing the Guard.^[191]

As Canada's national capital, tourism is an important part of Ottawa's economy, particularly after the 150th anniversary of Canada, centred in Ottawa. The lead-up to the festivities saw much investment in civic infrastructure, upgrades to tourist infrastructure and increases in national cultural attractions.^[192] Depending on methodology and source, the National Capital Region annually attracts an estimated 9.8 to 11 million tourists, who spend about 2.6 billion dollars and support approximately 23,000 jobs directly.^{[193] [194] [195]} In addition to the economic activities that come with being the national capital, Ottawa is an important technology centre; in 2015, its 1800 companies employed approximately 63,400 people.^[196] The concentration of companies in this industry earned the city the nickname of "Silicon Valley North." Most of these companies specialize in telecommunications, software development and environmental technology. Large technology companies such as Nortel, Corel, Mitel, Cognos, Halogen Software, Shopify and JDS Uniphase were founded in the city.^[197] Ottawa also has regional locations for Nokia, Adobe Systems, Bell Canada and IBM.^[198] Many of the telecommunications and new technology are in the western part of the city (formerly Kanata). The "tech sector" was doing particularly prior to the dot-com burst, but remains generally strong as of 2016.^{[199] [200]} Nordion, Abbott Laboratories and the National Research Council of Canada and OHRI are part of the life science sector in Ottawa.^{[201] [202]}

The health sector is another major employer, which employs over 64,000 people in the city as of the 2020 census. The City of Ottawa is the second largest employer as of 2010,^{[203] [204]} with approximately 2,100 people employed by the Ottawa Police service as of 2022, and 13,300 full-time equivalent non-police employees as of 2019.^{[205] [206]}

All major clusters tracked by the city saw increases in employment between 2014 and 2019.^[207] Major areas of growth in the 2010s included local and federal administration, finance and accommodation. Between 2008 and 2020, there was growth in the number of government employees and a reduction in high-tech jobs, a reversal of previous trends from 2003 to 2008.^[208] The city has experienced a weak labour market recovery in the years since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.^[209] Ottawa has also seen above average disruption to the economy due to American tariff policy during the second term of President Donald Trump.^[210]

Ottawa already has the largest rural economy among Canada's major cities. In Ottawa, the rural economy contributes over $1 billion to the GDP. Agriculture alone accounts for $400 million, $136.7 million of which is farm-gate sales.^[211] Rural economic activity includes agriculture, retail sales, construction, forestry and mining (aggregates), tourism, manufacturing, personal and business services, and transportation, to name a few. Rural employment expanded by a healthy 18% from 1996 to 2001.

Media

Three two daily local newspapers are printed in Ottawa: two English newspapers, the Ottawa Citizen established as the Bytown Packet in 1845 and the Ottawa Sun.^[212] The city's last French language daily, Le Droit, has become an online only paper after a 2020-2023 run as a weekly.^[213] The city is also home to local stations of the television broadcast networks and systems CBC and CTV, as well as English and French radio stations.^{[214] [215] [216]}

In addition to the market's local media services, Ottawa is home to several national media operations, including CPAC (Canada's national legislature broadcaster)^[217] and the parliamentary bureau staff of various major newsgathering organizations in television, radio and print.^[218] The city is also home to the head office of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.^[219]

Education

Primary and secondary education

Ottawa has four main public school boards: English, English-Catholic, French, and French-Catholic. The English-language Ottawa-Carleton District School Board (OCDSB) is the largest board with 116 primary schools, 26 scondary schools, 5 alternative learning sites and 1 adult education school,^[220] followed by the English-Catholic Ottawa Catholic School Board with 90 schools.^[221] The two French-language boards are the French-Catholic Conseil des écoles catholiques du Centre-Est with 46 primary schools and 11 secondary schools,^[222] and the French Conseil des écoles publiques de l'Est de l'Ontario with 44 schools.^[223] Ottawa also has numerous private schools which are not part of a board.^[224]

The Ottawa Public Library was created in 1906 as part of the Carnegie library system.^[225] As of 2026 the library system has 1.8 million items, down from 2.3 million in 34 branches and 2 mobile libraries in 2008.^{[226] [227]} Approximately 11.5 million loans were conducted in 2024^[228], approximately 8.2 million physical loans and the remainder digital items.^[229] In 2024, the library saw 3.5 million visits.

Higher education and public research

Ottawa is known as the most educated city in Canada, with over half the population having graduated from college and/or university.^[230] As of 2007, Ottawa was claimed by the local business journal to have the highest per capita concentration of engineers, scientists, and residents with PhDs in Canada.^[231] The city has two main public universities and two main public colleges.

• Carleton University was founded in 1942 to meet the needs of returning World War II veterans and later became Ontario's first private, non-denominational college. Over time, Carleton transitioned into a comprehensive university that Maclean's ranks 4th out of 15 in its comprehensive category.^[232] The university's campus sits between Old Ottawa South and the Central Experimental Farm.^[233]
• The University of Ottawa (originally named the "College of Bytown") was the first post-secondary institution established in the city in 1848. The university later grew to become the largest English-French bilingual university in the world.^[234] It is also a member of the U15, a group of highly respected research-intensive universities in Canada.^[235] The university's main campus is in the Sandy Hill neighbourhood, just adjacent to the city's downtown core.^[236] The University of Ottawa's catholic affiliated university college is St. Paul University.
• Algonquin College is a college of applied arts and technology founded in 1967.^[237] Its main campus is located in the City View neighbourhood of College Ward. The college serves the National Capital Region and the outlying areas of Eastern Ontario.^[238] The college has satellite campuses in Pembroke and Perth.^[239]
• Collège La Cité is the largest French-language college in Ontario.^[240] Founded in 1989,^[241] its campus is located off the Aviation Parkway in the Carson Meadows neighbourhood.^[242]

Other colleges and universities in the metropolitan area are located in the neighbouring suburb of Gatineau, including the University of Quebec in Outaouais, Cégep de l'Outaouais, and Heritage College.^[243]

The city is also home to many federal post-secondary associations, including those representing institutions like Polytechnics Canada,^[244] Universities Canada,^[245] Colleges and Institutes Canada,^[246] Association des collèges et universités de la francophonie canadienne,^[247] and the U15^[248] ; those representing educators, such as the Canadian Association of University Teachers;^[249] and those representing students, such as the Canadian Alliance of Student Associations,^[250] Canadian Federation of Students^[251] and the National Educational Association of Disabled Students.^[252]

Public research also occurs through government laboratories and research centres such as the National Research Council^[253], various Health Canada laboratories^[254] or theCentral Experimental Farm.^[255]

Public health

See also: List of hospitals in Ottawa.

There are six active general medical hospitals in the city of Ottawa: The Queensway Carleton Hospital, The Ottawa Hospital (Civic Hospital, General Hospital, Riverside Hospital), Montfort Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario. Several specialized hospital facilities are also present, such as the University of Ottawa Heart Institute, the Royal Ottawa Mental Health Centre, and Élisabeth Bruyère Hospital.^[256] There are also several hospitals and major medical centres in neighbouring suburban communities and commuter towns.^[257] The University of Ottawa Faculty of Medicine operates teaching hospitals in conjunction with partners throughout the city.^[258]

Ottawa is the headquarters of numerous major medical organizations and institutions such as Canadian Red Cross, Canadian Blood Services, Health Canada, Canadian Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Canadian Nurses Association, and the Medical Council of Canada.

Culture and contemporary life

Traditionally, the ByWard Market (in Lower Town), Parliament Hill, Chinatown, and the Golden Triangle (in Centretown – Downtown) have been focal points of the cultural scenes in Ottawa. Modern thoroughfares such as Wellington Street, Rideau Street, Sussex Drive, Elgin Street, Bank Street, Somerset Street, Preston Street, Richmond Road in Westboro, and Sparks Street are home to many boutiques, museums, theatres, galleries, landmarks and memorials in addition to eating establishments, cafes, bars and nightclubs.

As Canada's capital, Ottawa has played host to many significant cultural events in Canadian history, including the first visit of the reigning Canadian sovereign—King George VI, with his consort, Queen Elizabeth—to his parliament, on 19 May 1939.^[259] VE Day was marked with a large celebration on 8 May 1945,^[260] the first raising of the country's new national flag took place on 15 February 1965,^{[261] [262]} and the centennial of Confederation was celebrated on 1 July 1967.^[263] Queen Elizabeth II was in Ottawa on 17 April 1982, to issue a royal proclamation of the enactment of the Constitution Act.^[264] In 1983, then prince Charles and Diana Princess of Wales came to Ottawa for a state dinner hosted by then Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.^[265] In 2011, Ottawa was selected as the first city to receive Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge during their tour of Canada.^[266]

Ottawa was featured in the short story collection For Your Eyes Only, by Ian Fleming.^[267]

Landmarks

See main article: List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Ottawa and List of designated heritage properties in Ottawa.

There is one World Heritage Site in Ottawa, the Rideau Canal,^[268] along with 27 National Historic Sites of Canada in Ottawa, including the Château Laurier, the Parliament of Canada, Confederation Square, the former Ottawa Teachers' College and Laurier House.^[269] Many other properties of cultural value have been designated as having "heritage elements" by the City of Ottawa under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act.^[270]

Arts

See also: List of attractions in Ottawa and List of museums in Ottawa.

Performing and visual arts

The Ottawa Little Theatre, founded in 1913 as the Ottawa Drama League, is Ottawa's longest-running community theatre company. Since 1969, Ottawa has been the home of the National Arts Centre, a major performing arts venue that houses four stages and is home to the National Arts Centre Orchestra, and formerly hosted the Opera Lyra Ottawa and the Ottawa Symphony Orchestra prior to their failure and move to Carleton University, respectively.^{[271] [272]}

Established in 1975, the Great Canadian Theatre Company specializes in the production of Canadian plays at a local level.^[273] The cities museum landscape is notable for containing six of Canada's nine national museums, the Canada Agriculture and Food Museum, the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, the Canada Science and Technology Museum, Canadian Museum of Nature, Canadian War Museum and National Gallery of Canada.^[274] The National Gallery of Canada; designed by famous architect Moshe Safdie, it is a permanent home to the Maman sculpture.^[275] The Canadian War Museum houses a collection comprised of approximately 600,000 artifacts, photos and books and was moved to an expanded facility in 2005.^{[276] [277]} The Victoria Memorial Museum Building, which houses the Canadian Museum of Nature commenced construction in 1905 and it opened as the National Museum of Natural Sciences in 1912, and underwent a major renovation between 2004 and 2010, leading to a centrepiece Blue Whale skeleton, and the creation of a monthly nightclub experience, Nature Nocturne.^{[278] [279] [280]}

Cuisine

Ottawa is home to several regional dishes. As a city with traditional French-Canadian roots, staples such as poutine are served throughout the city. However, many consider shawarma Ottawa's official dish;^{[281] [282]} the city contains more shawarma restaurants than anywhere else in Canada.^[283] Beaver tails, a fried dough pastry, were first created in Ottawa in the 1970s. Le Cordon Bleu has a long-established culinary arts institute in the central Ottawa neighbourhood of Sandy Hill, the only Le Cordon Bleu campus in North America.^[284]

Festivals

See also: List of festivals in Ottawa.

Ottawa hosts a variety of annual seasonal activities—such as Winterlude, the largest festival in Canada,^[285] and Canada Day celebrations on Parliament Hill and surrounding downtown area,^[286] as well as Bluesfest, Canadian Tulip Festival, Ottawa Dragon Boat Festival, Ottawa International Jazz Festival, Fringe Festival, Capital Pride, and CityFolk, that have grown to become some of the largest festivals of their kind in the world.^{[287] [288] [289] [290] [291] [292]} In 2010, Ottawa's Festival industry received the IFEA "World Festival and Event City Award" for the category of North American cities with a population between 500,000 and 1,000,000.^[293]

Sports

Professional sports

Sport in Ottawa has a history dating back to the 19th century. The city is currently home to six professional sports teams. The Ottawa Senators are a professional ice hockey team playing in the National Hockey League.^[294] The team shares the name with a previous franchise that won the Stanley Cup four times between 1920 and 1927.^[295] The team is currently a member of the Atlantic Division and play their home games at the Canadian Tire Centre.^[296] In 2023, the Ottawa Charge became one of the six charter franchises of the Professional Women's Hockey League (PWHL).The Charge play home games at TD Place Arena.^[297]

The Ottawa Redblacks are a professional Canadian Football team playing in the Canadian Football League.^[298] Formerly the Ottawa Rough Riders represented the city until 1996. With a precursors dating back to 1876, the team adopted its identify in 1898 and was one of the oldest and longest-lived professional sports teams in North America.^[299] The professional soccer club, Atlético Ottawa, plays in the Canadian Premier League. The team was founded by Spanish club Atlético Madrid, and along with the Redblacks, play their home games at TD Place Stadium.^{[300] [301]} Ottawa Rapid FC of the Northern Super League also play at TD Place Stadium. The Rapid are one of the six founding clubs in the NSL, having played in the inaugural 2025 season.^[302] The New York Riptide became Ottawa Black Bears when they moved to the city in 2024.^[303] They compete in the National Lacrosse League and play at the Canadian Tire Centre in Kanata.^[304] The Ottawa Blackjacks are a professional basketball team, playing in the Canadian Elite Basketball League, out of the TD Place Arena.^{[305] [306]} The Ottawa Titans play professional baseball in the Frontier League at Raymond Chabot Grant Thornton Park.^[307] Ottawa was previously home to the Ottawa Lynx, a Triple-A club, as well as the Ottawa Champions, an independent baseball team in the Can-Am League.^{[308] [309]}

Collegiate sports

The University of Ottawa and Carleton University varsity teams compete in U Sports in various sports.^[310] Algonquin College and Collège La Cité teams compete in the OCAA.^[311]

The Carleton Ravens are nationally ranked in basketball and soccer as of 2011.^[312] Carleton's men's basketball program is regarded as dynastically successful, having won 17 of the last 20 national championships.^[313] The Ottawa Gee-Gees are nationally ranked in basketball and soccer as of 2022.^[314]

Non-professional and amateur sports

Several non-professional teams also play in Ottawa, including the Ottawa 67's junior ice hockey team.^[315] The city is home to an assortment of amateur organized team sports such as soccer, basketball, baseball and curling.^[316] Casual recreational activities, such as skating, cycling and skiing are also available.^[317]

Ironman Triathlon began in Ottawa in 2025.^[318]

Government and politics

The City of Ottawa is a single-tier municipality, meaning it is in itself a census division and has no county or regional municipality government above it, and has no subsidiary municipalities to provide municipal services.^{[319] [320] [321]} Ottawa is governed by the 25-member Ottawa City Council consisting of 24 councillors each representing one ward and the mayor, Mark Sutcliffe as of the 2022 Ottawa municipal election, is elected in a citywide vote. Ottawa is subject to Ontario's strong mayor powers.^{[322] [323]}

Along with being the capital of Canada, Ottawa is politically diverse in local politics. Most of the city has traditionally supported the Liberal Party in federal elections.^{[324] [325]} The safest areas for the Liberals are the ones dominated by Francophones, especially in Vanier and central Gloucester. Central Ottawa is usually more left-leaning, and the New Democratic Party have won ridings there.^[326] Ridings further outside the city centre, such as those including Kanata, Barrhaven and rural areas, tend to be more conservative, fiscally and socially.^[324] This is especially true in the former Townships of West Carleton, Goulbourn, Rideau and Osgoode, which are more in line with the conservative areas in the surrounding counties.^[324]

At present, Ottawa is host to approximately 150 embassies.^[327] A further approximately 50 countries accredit their embassies and missions in the United States to Canada.^[328]

Transportation

See also: OC Transpo, O-Train, List of airports in the Ottawa area, List of Ottawa roads, List of numbered roads in Ottawa and List of bridges in Ottawa.

Public transportation

See main article: OC Transpo.

Ottawa's public transit system is managed by OC Transpo.^[329] OC Transpo operates an integrated, multi-modal rapid transit system which includes:

• The O-Train light rail system. The four-line public rail system includes three existing lines and one currently under construction.
  • Line 1 is an east–west line which operates medium-capacity light rail vehicles and travels under the city's downtown core.^[330]
  • Line 2 is a north–south rail transit corridor which utilizes a mix of Stadler FLIRTs and Alstom Coradia LINTs connecting the south end of Ottawa to Line 1 at Bayview station.^{[331] [332]}
  • Line 3 is an under construction branch of Line 1, splitting at Lincoln Fields station and continuing west.^[333]
  • Line 4 is a airport link connecting Line 2 to the Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport^[334]
• A vast bus rapid transit (BRT) system that uses a series of dedicated bus-only roadways named the Transitway and reserved lanes on city streets and highways. The Transitway has long distances between stops and full station amenities (including platforms, walkways, fare gates, ticket booths, elevators and convenience stores). It connects Ottawa's suburbs to the inner city.^[335] The rapid bus service network operates all day, seven days a week, reaching the suburban communities of Kanata to the West, Barrhaven to the South-West, Orléans to the East, and South Keys to the South.
• Over 190 local bus routes are served by a fleet of ordinary, articulated and double-decker buses.^[336] Both OC Transpo and the Quebec-based Société de transport de l'Outaouais (STO) operate bus transit services between Ottawa and Gatineau.^{[337] [338]} OC Transpo also operates a door-to-door bus service for disabled individuals known as ParaTranspo. There is a hypothetical LRT partnership that proposes linking Ottawa with Gatineau and connecting to the O-Train.^[339]

Airports

The Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport is the city's principal airport.^[340] There are also three other airports providing general aviation services: Gatineau-Ottawa Executive Airport, Ottawa/Carp Airport, and Ottawa/Rockcliffe Airport.^{[341] [342] [343]}

Inter-city transportation

Ottawa station is the main inter-city train station operated by Via Rail. It is located to the east of downtown in Eastway Gardens (adjacent to O-Train Tremblay station) and serves Via Rail's Corridor Route.^{[344] [345] [346]} The city is also served by inter-city passenger rail service at Fallowfield station in the southwestern suburban community of Barrhaven.^[347]

Intercity bus services are currently provided by several carriers at various stops throughout the city, following the closure of the former Ottawa Central Station bus terminal on 1 June 2021. Major carriers include: Megabus, Ontario Northland, Autobus Gatineau,^{[348] [349] [350]} and Orléans Express.^[351]

Streets and highways

The City of Ottawa has over lane-kilometres of road and a series of freeways.^[352] The primary freeways are the east–west provincial Highway 417 (designated as the Queensway and part of the Trans-Canada Highway), Ottawa-Carleton Highway 174 (formerly Provincial Highway 17), Highway 7, and the north–south provincial Highway 416 (designated as Veterans' Memorial Highway), which connects to other 400-Series highways via the 401.^{[353] [354] [355]} From downtown there are also freeway connections to Autoroute 5 and Autoroute 50, in neighbouring Gatineau.^[356]

The city also has several scenic parkways and promenades, such as the Kichi Zibi Mikan (formerly the Macdonald Parkway), Colonel By Drive, Queen Elizabeth Driveway, the Sir George-Étienne Cartier Parkway (formerly the Rockcliffe Parkway), and the Aviation Parkway.^[357] The National Capital Commission manages ceremonial routes linking key attractions on both sides of the Ottawa River, including Confederation Boulevard.^[358]

Cycling and pedestrian network

Numerous paved multi-use trails, mostly operated by the National Capital Commission and the city, wind their way through much of the capital, including along the Ottawa River, Rideau River, and Rideau Canal.^[359] These pathways are used for transportation, tourism, and recreation. Because many streets either have wide curb lanes or bicycle lanes, cycling is a mode of transportation used by up to 3.7% of citizens, including in winter. This is the largest percentage of any major Canadian city.^{[360] [361] [362] [363]} As of 31 December 2015, over of cycling facilities are found in Ottawa, including of multi-use pathways, of cycle tracks, of on-road bicycle lanes, and of paved shoulders.^[364] of new cycling facilities were added between 2011 and 2014.

The entire length of Sparks Street was turned into a pedestrian mall in 1966.^[365] Since 1960, additional avenues, streets, and parkways, are reserved for pedestrian and bicycle use only on Saturdays, Sundays and on selected holidays and events.^[366] In 2021 city council unanimously approved the Byward Market Public Realm Plan to make the market area more car-free and pedestrian friendly.^[367] From 2009 to 2015 the NCC introduced the Capital Bixi bicycle-sharing system. This continued until the company VeloGo took over the program from 2015 to 2018 when the partnership ceased.^{[368] [369]} Scooter-sharing systems were introduced in the downtown and inner-city areas in 2025.^[370]

Notable people

See main article: List of people from Ottawa.

See also

• Outline of Ottawa

Bibliography

• Book: Brault, Lucien . Ottawa Old and New . registration . 1946 . Ottawa Historical Information Institute . 2947504.
• Book: Gordon, David L.A. . Town and Crown an illustrated history of Canada's capital . 2015 . University of Ottawa Press . 978-0-470-68158-9 . 1 November 2022. Alt URL
• Book: Hale, James . Frommer's Ottawa . 2011 . John Wiley and Sons . 978-0-470-68158-9 . 15 November 2015 . 18 May 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160518051438/https://books.google.com/books?id=D-xZXkWpWtIC&pg=PT1 . live.
• Book: Jeff . Keshen . Nicole . St-Onge . Ottawa—making a capital . 2001 . University of Ottawa Press . 978-0-7766-0521-0 . 15 November 2015 . 24 April 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160424090752/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q9Bb4EiAyoC&pg=PP1 . live.
• Book: Lee, David . Lumber kings & shantymen: logging and lumbering in the Ottawa Valley . 2006 . James Lorimer & Company . 978-1-55028-922-0 . 15 November 2015 . 12 May 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160512120704/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZLSf-I0XgIC&pg=PA1 . live.
• Book: Legget, Robert . Rideau Waterway . 1986 . University of Toronto Press . 0-8020-6591-0 . 15 November 2015 . 14 May 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160514110242/https://books.google.com/books?id=CaA4OpW4Ao0C&pg=PA252 . live.
• Book: Martin, Carol . Ottawa: a colourguide . 1997 . Formac Publishing Company . 978-0-88780-396-3 . 15 November 2015 . 6 May 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160506090703/https://books.google.com/books?id=gjUoa_r4LOIC&pg=PA1 . live.
• Book: Mika . Nick . Mika . Helma . Bytown: The Early Days of Ottawa . 1982 . Mika Publishing Company . 0-919303-60-9.
• Book: Taylor, John H. . Ottawa: An Illustrated History . 1986 . J. Lorimer . 978-0-88862-981-4.
• Book: Van de Wetering, Marion . An Ottawa album: glimpses of the way we were . 1997 . Dundurn Press Ltd. . 978-0-88882-195-9 . 15 November 2015 . 12 May 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160512123505/https://books.google.com/books?id=jRkxGw291AcC&pg=PA1 . live.
• Book: Woods, Shirley E. Jr. . Ottawa: The Capital of Canada . 1980 . Doubleday Canada . 0-385-14722-8.

Notes and References

1. Book: Ottawa Book of Everything . Art Montague . MacIntyre Purcell Publishing . 2008 . 14 July 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120426063702/http://www.bookofeverything.com/website/docs/OttawaBOE_Essentials.pdf . 26 April 2012 . dead.
2. Book: Justin D. Edwards . Justin D. Edwards . Douglas Ivison . Downtown Canada: Writing Canadian Cities . 2005 . University of Toronto Press . 978-0-8020-8668-6 . 35 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160520011646/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bD75NCOS18C&pg=PA35 . 20 May 2016 . live.
3. Web site: City of Ottawa Act, 1999, Chapter 14, Schedule E . Service Ontario/Legislative Assembly of Ontario . 2010 . 29 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110808101635/http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_99c14e_e.htm#BK3 . 8 August 2011 . live.
4. Web site: Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), 2021 and 2016 censuses – 100% data . Statistics Canada . 9 February 2022 . 24 February 2026. live .
5. Web site: Population and dwelling counts, for Canada and population centres, 2021 and 2016 censuses – 100% data . Statistics Canada . 26 February 2026 . 26 February 2026. live .
6. Web site: Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations, 2021 and 2016 censuses – 100% data . Statistics Canada . 26 February 2026 . 26 February 2026. live .
7. Web site: City of Ottawa – Design C . Ottawa.ca . 20 May 2010 . 26 October 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120118093823/http://ottawa.ca/residents/public_consult/lansdowne_partnership/urban_park/proposed_designs/c_en.html . 18 January 2012.
8. Web site: Rapport au / Report to . Ottawa.ca . 2011 . 26 October 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120118170026/http://ottawa.ca/calendar/ottawa/citycouncil/occ/2011/08-25/fedco/01%20-%20ACS2011-OCM-CMR-0003%20-%202010%20Report%20on%20FLS%20ENG.htm . 18 January 2012 . live.
9. Web site: Table 36-10-0468-01 Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by census metropolitan area (CMA) (x 1,000,000) . 24 February 2026 . . 24 February 2026 . live.
10. Web site: Statistics Canada . Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by census metropolitan area (CMA) (x 1,000,000) . Statistics Canada . 25 February 2026.
11. Web site: 22 June 2011 . National Capital Act (R. S. C., 1985, c. N-4) . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110811020955/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/N-4.pdf . 11 August 2011 . 8 July 2011 . Department of Justice . 13 Schedule (Section 2) 'Description of National Capital Region'.
12. Web site: Census Profile, 2021 Census Ottawa, [City Census subdivision], Ontario . 9 February 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209152508/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0&DGUIDlist=2021A00053506008&SearchText=ottawa . 9 February 2022 . live.
13. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Population and dwelling counts: Census metropolitan areas, census agglomerations and census subdivisions (municipalities) . 2026-02-19 . www150.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209181811/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000301 . live .
14. Book: Bosc . Marc . Gagnon . André . Ottawa as the Seat of Government . https://www.ourcommons.ca/procedure/procedure-and-practice-3/ch_06_1-e.html . House of Commons Procedure and Practice . 2017 . 3rd . 20 July 2022 . 2 May 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230502121452/https://www.ourcommons.ca/procedure/procedure-and-practice-3/ch_06_1-e.html . live.
15. Web site: A Brief History of Bytown . Run Ottawa . 2 May 2021 . 2 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210502205416/https://www.runottawa.ca/a-brief-history-of-bytown . live.
16. 2022 official results https://app06.ottawa.ca/election/2022_en.html accessed June 5, 2025
17. News: Is Ottawa Canada's smartest city? Capital edges Toronto, Calgary in university-educated population . 26 June 2013 . National Post . . 5 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231105223456/https://nationalpost.com/category/news/ . live.
18. Web site: Ottawa's Seven National Museums . Ottawa Tourism . Ottawa Tourism and Convention Authority, Inc . 2 May 2021 . 2 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210502212124/https://ottawatourism.ca/en/ottawa-insider/ottawa-s-seven-national-museums . live.
19. Web site: Rodrigues . Janice . 2024-12-14 . Canadian cities rank among best in the world for quality of life in 2024 CIC News . 2026-02-21 . en-US.
20. News: Canada's third consecutive record-breaking year in tourism in 2019 a win for Ottawa . 23 July 2022 . City News . Rogers Sports & Media . 31 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221031043455/https://ottawa.citynews.ca/local-news/canadas-third-consecutive-record-breaking-year-in-tourism-in-2019-a-win-for-ottawa-2112684 . live.
21. News: Ottawa attracts more than 11 million visitors each year . 23 July 2022 . Ottawa Citizen . Post Media . 6 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220106073742/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/the-future-of-ottawa-tourism-will-rely-on-the-citys-residents . live.
22. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2025-07-29 . The great big see, from sea to sea to sea: A snapshot of vacations in Canada . 2026-02-19 . www.statcan.gc.ca.
23. Book: Alan Rayburn . Naming Canada: Stories About Canadian Place Names . University of Toronto Press . 2001 . 978-0-8020-8293-0 . 231 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160520061253/https://books.google.com/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA231 . 20 May 2016 . live.
24. Encyclopedia: Ottawa (ON) . The Canadian Encyclopedia . 24 February 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131213081108/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/ottawa-ont/ . 13 December 2013 . live.
25. The Algonquin Way, Dictionary, "Odàwàg" Link
26. Book: William J. Miller . Geology: The Science of the Earth's Crust (Illustrations) . 2015 . P. F. Collier & Son Company . 37 . GGKEY:Y3TD08H3RAT . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160510005752/https://books.google.com/books?id=XwWYBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT37 . 10 May 2016 . live.
27. Web site: 15 April 2013 . The Champlain Sea: here yesterday, gone tomorrow . 13 July 2022 . Wat on Earth . en . 14 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220714034215/https://uwaterloo.ca/wat-on-earth/news/champlain-sea-here-yesterday-gone-tomorrow . live.
28. Web site: Pilon . Jean-Luc . Ancient History of the Lower Ottawa River Valley . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112029/http://www.ottawariver.org/pdf/04-ch2-2.pdf . 4 March 2016 . 9 November 2015 . Ottawa River Heritage Designation Committee . Ontario Archaeology – Canadian Museum of Civilization.
29. Web site: 12 April 2018 . Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America . 13 July 2022 . National Defence - Government of Canada . 24 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220324062210/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/military-history/history-heritage/popular-books/aboriginal-people-canadian-military/warfare-pre-columbian-north-america.html . live.
30. Book: De Jonge, James A. . The Military Establishment at Bytown, 1826-1856 . 1983 . 1983 . 65.
31. Web site: HistoricPlaces.ca - HistoricPlaces.ca . 2026-02-20 . www.historicplaces.ca . 15 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231115073539/https://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=8446 . live .
32. Web site: 2010 . Timeline – Know your Ottawa! . dead . https://archive.today/20130118191714/http://www.bytownmuseum.com/EN/timeline.html . 18 January 2013 . 2 July 2011 . Bytown Museum.
33. Encyclopedia: Shiners' Wars . The Canadian Encyclopedia . 14 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181215065855/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/shiners-wars . 15 December 2018 . live.
34. Web site: Powell . James . The Shiners' War - The Historical Society of Ottawa . 2026-02-20 . www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca . en-gb . 4 June 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240604122803/https://www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca/publications/ottawa-stories/momentous-events-in-the-city-s-life/the-shiners-war . live .
35. Web site: Powell . James . 2018-09-17 . Remember This? Stony Monday Riot . 2026-02-20 . CityNews Ottawa . en.
36. Book: Bryan D. Cook . Introducing William Pittman Lett: Ottawa's first city clerk and bard (1819–1892) . B.D.C. Ottawa Consulting . 2015 . 978-1-771363-42-6 . 412.
37. Ottawa City Council, 31 May 1875, Motion Concerning Compensation to Mrs Sowdon, moved by Aldermen Rocque ans Pratte.
38. Lett, W. P. Proposal to the City Constitution Committee 10 August 1877, City of Ottawa Archives /MG 037-8-1 p. 77.
39. Book: Knight, David B . Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system . Carleton university Press . 1991 . 47–50.
40. Gordon, D.L.A., & Osborne, B. (2004). Constructing national identity in Canada's capital, 1900–2000: Confederation Square and the National War Memorial. Journal of Historical Geography 30, (4):618-642
41. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 71.
42. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 74–86
43. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 88.
44. Web site: 23 November 2017 . Toronto's Bid to Be the Capital of Canada . 10 August 2022 . City of Toronto . en-CA . 4 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220804190343/https://www.toronto.ca/explore-enjoy/history-art-culture/online-exhibits/web-exhibits/web-exhibits-significant-events/the-earliest-known-photographs-of-toronto/torontos-bid-to-be-the-capital-of-canada/ . live . Toronto . City of .
45. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 208
46. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 129
47. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 156–164
48. Web site: Head, Sir Edmund National Historic Person . 14 July 2022 . www.pc.gc.ca . en . 14 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220714034214/https://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/dfhd/page_nhs_eng.aspx?id=1254 . live.
49. Web site: Powell . James . Queen Victoria Chooses Ottawa . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20211122175907/https://www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca/publications/ottawa-stories/momentous-events-in-the-city-s-life/queen-victoria-chooses-ottawa . 22 November 2021 . 14 July 2022 . The Historical Society of Ottawa . en-gb.
50. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 1
51. Knight, David B (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton university Press. pp. 1, 334–335
52. Web site: A Capital in the Making . . 24 December 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070108134234/http://www.canadascapital.gc.ca/bins/ncc_web_content_page.asp?cid=16297-24515-24516-25146&lang=1 . 8 January 2007 . dead.
53. Book: Northey . Knight . Choosing Canada's Capital: Conflict Resolution in a Parliamentary System . Revised . Issue 168 of Carleton Library Series, ISSN 0576-7784 . 1991 . McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP . 978-0-88629-148-8 . 236 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160502153916/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPY3hRG0a-EC&pg=PA236 . 2 May 2016 . live.
54. Book: Saul Bernard Cohen . Geopolitics of the world system . 2003 . Rowman & Littlefield . 978-0-8476-9907-0 . 122 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160424133740/https://books.google.com/books?id=QkMD8HKRlgoC&pg=PA122 . 24 April 2016 . live.
55. Web site: Why Was Ottawa Chosen as the Federal Capital City? . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110202235657/http://www.ottawagraphy.ca/answers/why-was-ottawa-chosen-federal-capital-city . 2 February 2011 . 25 November 2014.
56. Knight, David B. (1991). Choosing Canada's capital: conflict resolution in a parliamentary system. Carleton University Press. pp. 1, 243
57. Web site: Rideau Canal . 14 July 2022 . The Historical Society of Ottawa . en-gb . 14 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220714034214/https://www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca/publications/ottawa-stories/important-public-and-private-buildings-in-the-city/tag/Rideau%20Canal . live.
58. Web site: The Parliament Buildings . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20151113114107/http://www.parl.gc.ca/About/Parliament/Publications/ParliamentBuildings/parlblgs-e.asp . 13 November 2015 . 3 December 2018 . parl.gc.ca.
59. Web site: Construction, 1859–1916 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141228212113/http://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/collineduparlement-parliamenthill/batir-building/hist/1859-1916-eng.html . 28 December 2014.
60. Web site: Gatineau Valley Historical Society . 2026-02-20 . www.gvhs.ca . en . 10 July 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20250710144644/https://www.gvhs.ca/ . live .
61. Web site: Powell . James . The Last Timber Raft - The Historical Society of Ottawa . 2026-02-20 . www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca . en-gb . 3 November 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251103183924/https://www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca/publications/ottawa-stories/momentous-events-in-the-city-s-life/the-last-timber-raft . live .
62. Web site: Ottawa History – 1886–1890 . dead . https://archive.today/20130102042325/http://www.bytownmuseum.com/EN/fifteen-3.html . 2 January 2013 . 10 August 2011 . Bytown Museum.
63. Ottawa, An Illustrated History, John H. Taylor .Page 102. Jame Lorimer and Company Publishing.
64. Web site: 2016-10-15 . Electricity . 2026-02-20 . Today in Ottawa's History . en . 17 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190917011507/https://todayinottawashistory.wordpress.com/tag/electricity/ . live .
65. Web site: Chaudière Falls . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20141228212928/http://energyottawa.com/generation/chaudiere-falls/ . 28 December 2014 . 28 December 2014.
66. Web site: CBC News Ottawa . Ottawa's original LRT: 68 years of streetcars in the capital . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220714034218/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-streetcar-archives-photos-lrt-1.5372302 . 14 July 2022 . 10 July 2022.
67. Web site: Report of the Ottawa and Hull Fire Relief Fund, 1900, Ottawa . The Rolla L. Crain Co (Archive CD Books Canada) . 5–12 . 31 December 1900 . 7 July 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110706164645/http://www.archivecdbooks.ca/Samples/CA0188_Samp.pdf . 6 July 2011.
68. Book: Ottawa and Hull Fire Relief Fund . Report of the Ottawa and Hull Fire Relief Fund, 1900 [microform] ]. 1900 . [Ottawa? : s.n.] . Canadiana.org . 978-0-665-11661-2.
69. Web site: Remember This? Hull and Ottawa in flames . 14 July 2022 . CityNews Ottawa . 20 April 2020 . en . 18 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210518022810/https://ottawa.citynews.ca/remember-this/remember-this-hull-and-ottawa-in-flames-2267155 . live.
70. News: Globerman . Danny . 14 May 2017 . Ottawa's past in pictures: Disasters that shook the city . 14 July 2022 . 18 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210118223928/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-s-past-in-pictures-disasters-that-shook-the-city-1.4099327 . live.
71. Web site: Ottawa's old train station: a 100-year timeline . Ottawa Citizen . 27 January 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180806194422/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/Ottawa+train+station+year+timeline/6690930/story.html . 6 August 2018 . live.
72. Web site: Fire! . 2026-02-21 . lop.parl.ca . 3 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260203071709/https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/About/Overview/Fire? . live .
73. Book: Dave Mullington . Chain of office: biographical sketches of the early mayors of Ottawa (1847–1948) . 2005 . General Store Publishing House . 978-1-897113-17-2 . 120 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160428124057/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKxwbOUKZYEC&pg=PA120 . 28 April 2016 . live.
74. Book: Reader's Digest Association (Canada) . The Canadian atlas: our nation, environment and people . 2004 . Reader's Digest Association (Canada) . 978-1-55365-082-9 . 40 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160629143040/https://books.google.com/books?id=vDR7hrnO1aYC&pg=PP40 . 29 June 2016 . live.
75. Web site: HistoricPlaces.ca - HistoricPlaces.ca . 2026-02-21 . www.historicplaces.ca.
76. Web site: Confederation Square National Historic Site of Canada . HistoricPlaces.ca . 16 April 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160316080543/http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=12073 . 16 March 2016 . live.
77. Web site: The Montreal Gazette . Old Ottawa Post Office Building Razed After Service of 62 Years . 24 June 1938 . 10 July 2022 . Google News Archive Search . 10 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220710161519/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19380624&id=0b00AAAAIBAJ&sjid=ZKgFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5524,3172428 . live.
78. Web site: Central Post Office (Ottawa Postal Station B) . 2026-02-21 . Privy Council Office.
79. Web site: Powell . James . Ottawa the Beautiful: The Gréber Report . 14 July 2022 . The Historical Society of Ottawa . en-gb . 2 December 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211202082900/https://www.historicalsocietyottawa.ca/publications/ottawa-stories/changes-in-the-city-s-landscape/ottawa-the-beautiful-the-greber-report . live.
80. Web site: The Gréber Report . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075840/http://ottawa.ca/en/residents/arts-culture-and-community/museums-and-heritage/witness-change-visions-andrews-newton-7 . 6 October 2014 . ottawa.ca.
81. Web site: Gréber Report . National Capital Commission . 229.
82. Web site: Gréber Report . National Capital Commission . 289 . 21 February 2026 . 12 December 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251212083325/https://ncc-website-2.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/Plan-For-The-National-Capital-General-Report-Jacques-Gr%C3%A9ber-1950-NCC.pdf#page289 . live .
83. Web site: Gréber Report . National Capital Commission . 307.
84. Web site: Gréber Report . National Capital Commission . 236.
85. Web site: Gréber Report . National Capital Commission . 292.
86. Book: Donna L. Erickson . MetroGreen: connecting open space in North American cities . Island Press . 2006 . 978-1-55963-843-2 . 113 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160512190337/https://books.google.com/books?id=LR5iIX__3OoC&pg=PA113 . 12 May 2016 . live.
87. Web site: About Us . https://web.archive.org/web/20260201045237/https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/about-us . 1 February 2026 . 2026-02-21 . National Capital Commission . en . live .
88. Web site: Stories of Our Past . https://web.archive.org/web/20250806210807/https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/blog/stories-of-our-past . 6 August 2025 . 2026-02-21 . National Capital Commission . en . live .
89. Web site: 1054 THE ANNUAL REGISTER, 1927 Federal District Commission.—The Federal District Commission, replacing the Ottawa Improvement . https://web.archive.org/web/20181221214912/https://www66.statcan.gc.ca/eng/1927-28/192710961054_p.%201054.pdf . dead . 21 December 2018 . 13 August 2022 . www66.statcan.gc.ca.
90. Web site: Gréber Report . National Capital Commission . 203.
91. Web site: Sorel . Theresa . Barbe . Serge . March 2023 . Ottawa’s second city hall . City of Ottawa.
92. News: Islands of Ottawa: Green Island a historical microcosm of the city . https://web.archive.org/web/20250416044336/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/islands-of-ottawa-green-island-a-historical-microcosm-of-the-city . 16 April 2025 . 2026-02-21 . ottawacitizen . en . live .
93. Web site: Islands of Ottawa: Green Island a historical microcosm of the city . 14 July 2022 . ottawacitizen . en-CA . 26 October 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181026060247/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/islands-of-ottawa-green-island-a-historical-microcosm-of-the-city . live.
94. Web site: 6. Ottawa Normal School Heritage Ottawa . 2026-02-21 . heritageottawa.org.
95. Book: Larisa V. Shavinina . Silicon Valley North: A High-tech Cluster of Innovation And Entrepreneurship . 2004 . Elsevier . 978-0-08-044457-4 . 15 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160504120907/https://books.google.com/books?id=cSjv-acTkoUC&pg=PR15 . 4 May 2016 . live.
96. Book: Ghent Mallett, Jocelyn . Silicon Valley North: The Formation of the Ottawa Innovation Cluster . Emerald Group Publishing Limited . 2004 . 978-1-84950-819-3 . Shavinina . Larisa V..
97. Web site: Canada . National Research Council . 19 March 2019 . NRC's innovative people profiles . 10 July 2022 . nrc.canada.ca . 1 February 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210201030121/https://nrc.canada.ca/en/corporate/history/nrcs-innovative-people-profiles . live.
98. News: CBC News Ottawa . 29 June 2009 . Is Ottawa still Silicon Valley North? . 13 August 2022 . 13 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220813201230/https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/is-ottawa-still-silicon-valley-north-1.801035 . live.
99. Web site: The Algonquin land claim . 13 July 2022 . ontario.ca . 21 June 2013 . en . 26 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220326095148/https://www.ontario.ca/page/algonquin-land-claim . live.
100. Web site: Algonquins of Ontario . Government of Ontario . Government of Canada . Agreement in Principle . 2.3.5 . 13 July 2022 . 14 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220714034324/https://docs.ontario.ca/documents/4668/maa-proposed-aip-en.pdf . live.
101. Web site: City of Ottawa Act, 1999, Chapter 14, Schedule E . Service Ontario/Legislative Assembly of Ontario . 2010 . 29 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110808101635/http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_99c14e_e.htm#BK3 . 8 August 2011 . live.
102. Web site: Canadian Municipal Elections . 10 July 2022 . pdba.georgetown.edu . 20 June 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100620035602/http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Elecdata/Canada/mun00.html . live.
103. Ottawa’s Original Light Rail Line: An Overview of Line 2 (Trillium Line) of Ottawa's O-Train . 2022-11-21 . Rail Fans Canada . 2026-02-21 . YouTube . 25 January 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260125103724/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ipwZTmaYsbY&t=247s&pp=ygUVaGlzdG9yeSBsaW5lIDIgb3R0YXdh . live .
104. Web site: CBC News Ottawa . 13 November 2006 . O'Brien runs away with Ottawa mayoral race . live . 10 July 2022 . 10 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220310075902/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/o-brien-runs-away-with-ottawa-mayoral-race-1.573629.
105. Web site: CBC news Ottawa . 29 May 2007 . Transit task force to propose extensive LRT plan: source . live . 10 July 2022 . 10 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220710161525/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/transit-task-force-to-propose-extensive-lrt-plan-source-1.664972.
106. News: Watson wins Ottawa mayor's race . CBC News . 25 October 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20101027095621/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/watson-wins-ottawa-mayor-s-race-1.905765 . 27 October 2010.
107. News: Final Lansdowne deal passed by council . CBC News . 10 October 2012 . 19 September 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130111093629/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/story/2012/10/10/ottawa-lansdowne-waterfall-agreement.html . 11 January 2013 . live.
108. News: Council gives final go ahead to Lansdowne project . Ottawa Citizen . 11 October 2012 . 27 January 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190705053632/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/Council+gives+final+ahead+Lansdowne+project/7369051/story.html . 5 July 2019 . live.
109. News: 4 key dates as Ottawa's LRT becomes a reality . CBC News . 6 September 2019 . 3 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190903005542/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-lrt-confederation-line-1.5258684 . live.
110. Web site: 2013 . Disclosure of executed contracts and reports: The Confederation Line – Ottawa’s Light Rail Transit (OLRT) Project . City of Ottawa.
111. Web site: Vigliotti . Marco . 2020-03-16 . Some federal departments not listening to TB advice on working remotely: PIPSC . 2026-02-23 . iPolitics . en-US.
112. Web site: December 16, 2022 . Government orders public service back to the office . 2026-02-23 . Policy Options . en-US . 4 December 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251204210819/https://policyoptions.irpp.org/2022/12/public-service-ordered-back-to-office/ . live .
113. Web site: Lapointe . Mike . February 24, 2022 . 'Freedom Convoy' dominated downtown for more than three weeks; living and working in Ottawa's 'red zone' . 2026-02-23 . The Hill Times . en-CA.
114. Web site: Miljure . Ben . 2022-01-23 . Truck convoy leaves Metro Vancouver en route to Ottawa vaccine mandate protest . 2026-02-23 . CTVNews . en.
115. News: Tunney . Catharine . February 14, 2022 . Federal government invokes Emergencies Act for first time ever in response to protests, blockades . . 14 February 2022 . 23 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220214232029/https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-premiers-cabinet-1.6350734 . live .
116. News: Woolf . Marie . March 8, 2022 . RCMP gave banks police info on Ottawa protesters with a list of accounts to freeze . CBC.
117. News: Lapierre . Matthew . Feb 19, 2022 . Police clear protesters from Wellington Street in front of Parliament Hill, tow vehicles . Ottawa Citizen . 14 July 2025 . 23 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20250714010214/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/police-clear-protesters-from-wellington-street-in-front-of-parliament-hill-tow-vehicles . live .
118. Web site: Big rigs, passenger vehicles snarl downtown Ottawa as trucker convoy parks by Parliament - National Globalnews.ca . 2026-02-23 . Global News . en-US . 4 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220304095257/https://globalnews.ca/news/8580547/trucker-convoy-freedom-covid-vaccine-mandate-ottawa/ . live .
119. News: CBC News . Mayor-elect Sutcliffe won most city wards, but inner core went to McKenney . CBC . 16 November 2022 . 23 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221116220250/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/mayor-elect-sutcliffe-won-most-city-wards-but-inner-core-went-to-mckenney-1.6633836 . live .
120. Web site: City of Ottawa . Urban Sub-Areas of Ottawa . 17 July 2022 . 1 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220701200248/https://documents.ottawa.ca/sites/documents/files/documents/urban-subareas-en.pdf . live.
121. Web site: Ottawa Neighbourhoods . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084643/http://www.ottawarealestate.ca/neighbourhoods.php . 19 August 2014 . 15 August 2014 . Ottawa Real Estate.ca.
122. Web site: 2002 . Ottawa Rural Communities . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20111113220822/http://www.ruralcouncil.ca/ORC/background.htm . 13 November 2011 . 2 June 2011 . The Rural Council of Ottawa-Carleton.
123. Book: Ontario . Statutes of the Province of Ontario 1968 . 1968 . Toronto : Queen's Printer . Robarts - University of Toronto.
124. Web site: Wayback Machine . https://web.archive.org/web/20110629124542/http://www.mah.gov.on.ca/AssetFactory.aspx?did=6212 . 2011-06-29 . 2026-02-21 . www.mah.gov.on.ca.
125. Web site: Official road map of Ontario . 17 July 2022 . ontario.ca . 24 March 2022 . en . 16 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220816192401/https://www.ontario.ca/page/official-road-map-ontario . live.
126. Web site: Ministère des Transports . Québec Official Road Map . 17 July 2022 . 17 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220717212504/https://www.quebec511.info/en/carte_routiere/index.asp . live.
127. Web site: 2011 . Neighborhoods of Ottawa . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20111127075543/http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&t=k&om=1&oe=UTF8&msa=0&msid=115838170672838983402.00043dad54fc8b7e8a93c . 27 November 2011 . 2 June 2011 . Google Maps.
128. Web site: City of Ottawa . Zoning Schedule A . 2008 . 25 July 2022 . 1 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221001215829/https://documents.ottawa.ca/sites/documents/files/schedule5_zbl_en.pdf . live.
129. Web site: . 29 January 2018 . Orléans Ottawa Lives Here . 22 October 2022 . en-US . 22 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221022194548/https://www.ottawaliveshere.com/orleans/ . live.
130. Web site: Kanata Central . 17 July 2022 . Ottawa Tourism . en . 20 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220520172223/https://ottawatourism.ca/en/about-ottawa/neighbourhoods/kanata-central . live.
131. Web site: Nepean The Canadian Encyclopedia . 17 July 2022 . www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca . 17 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220717215620/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/nepean . live.
132. Book: Shannon Ricketts . A guide to Canadian architectural styles . Leslie Maitland . Jacqueline Hucker . University of Toronto Press . 2004 . 978-1-55111-546-7 . 73 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160502124236/https://books.google.com/books?id=-f2MYzP6IWAC&pg=PA73 . 2 May 2016 . live.
133. Web site: Chris . 21 June 2016 . Ottawa's Apartments, 1955 . 25 July 2022 . historynerd.ca . en-CA . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725022940/https://www.historynerd.ca/2016/06/21/ottawas-apartments-1955/ . live.
134. Web site: City of Ottawa . 2019 . Heritage Study for 58 Florence Street . 14 . 25 July 2022 . 26 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220926165644/http://webcast.ottawa.ca/plan/All_Image%20Referencing_Zoning%20Bylaw%20Amendment%20Application_Image%20Reference_2019-08-21%20-%20Cultural%20Heritage%20Impact%20Statement%20-%20D02-02-19-0089.PDF . live.
135. Web site: LTD . Merkley Supply . 2024-09-12 . City Building: Ahead by a century . 2026-02-21 . en-US.
136. Web site: Reaching for the stars: Claridge eyes plan to build 60-storey residential tower in Little Italy . 25 July 2022 . Ottawa Business Journal . en . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725022939/https://www.obj.ca/article/real-estate/residential/reaching-stars-claridge-eyes-plan-build-60-storey-residential-tower . dead.
137. Web site: Government of Canada . Public Works and Government Services Canada . 8 August 2014 . NPMS Procedure—Managing Projects for Heritage Properties - Specialized Areas - NPMS - Real Property - PSPC . 25 July 2022 . www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca . 20 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171731/https://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/biens-property/sngp-npms/bi-rp/domaines-areas/pgpbp-pmphp-eng.html . live.
138. Web site: Government of Canada . Public Services and Procurement Canada . 31 July 2015 . Restoring and modernizing the Senate of Canada Building - Canada.ca . 25 July 2022 . www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca . 12 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210512043412/https://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/citeparlementaire-parliamentaryprecinct/rehabilitation/conference-eng.html . live.
139. Web site: Municipality Search: Directory of Federal Real Property . 2026-02-21 . www.tbs-sct.gc.ca.
140. Web site: 10 October 2008 . Mandate and Mission . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110509190424/http://www.canadascapital.gc.ca/bins/ncc_web_content_page.asp?cid=16302-22554-22561&lang=1 . 9 May 2011 . 8 June 2011 . The National Capital Commission.
141. Web site: Adam: The NCC and LeBreton Flats — all talk, no action? . 25 July 2022 . ottawacitizen . en-CA . 28 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220128001012/https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/adam-the-ncc-and-lebreton-flats-all-talk-no-action . live.
142. Web site: Government of Canada . Public Services and Procurement Canada . 17 July 2020 . National Capital Commission: Standing Committee on Procedure and House Affairs—February 27, 2020 - PSPC . 25 July 2022 . www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725022940/https://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/trans/documentinfo-briefingmaterial/proc/2020_02_27/p17-eng.html . live.
143. Web site: Secretariat . Treasury Board of Canada . Climatic Regions - Open Government Portal . 17 July 2022 . open.canada.ca . 31 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221031181102/https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/09ffaeb5-ec8f-5bb5-bdcb-3436ccf26f58 . live.
144. Web site: phz1981-2010 . Canada's Plant Hardiness Site . Natural Resources Canada . 14 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180807130053/http://planthardiness.gc.ca/?lang=en&m=24&speciesid=1000000&phz=phz1981-2010&bc=1 . 7 August 2018 . live.
145. News: Yes, Ottawa, it's a polar vortex again . https://web.archive.org/web/20211204165831/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/yes-ottawa-its-a-polar-vortex-again . 4 December 2021 . 2026-02-21 . ottawacitizen . en-CA . live .
146. Web site: Environment Canada . Ottawa CDA . Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 . 25 September 2013 . 6 April 2025 . 17 April 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20250417132611/https://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?searchType=stnProv&lstProvince=ON&txtCentralLatMin=0&txtCentralLatSec=0&txtCentralLongMin=0&txtCentralLongSec=0&stnID=4333&dispBack=0 . live .
147. Web site: Klock . Ross . Simard . Gilles . Mullock . John . The Weather of Ontario and Quebec: Graphic Area Forecast 33 . Nav Canada . 92–94, 74–75 . 17 July 2022 . 17 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220717204139/https://www.navcanada.ca/en/lawm-ontario-quebec-en.pdf . live.
148. Book: George Ripley . The American Cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge . Charles Anderson Dana . Appleton . 1875 . 733 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160528212025/https://books.google.com/books?id=KshPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA733 . 28 May 2016 . live.
149. Web site: Parks Canada Agency . Government of Canada . 17 April 2019 . History and culture - Rideau Canal National Historic Site . 13 August 2022 . www.pc.gc.ca . 19 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190419032921/https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/lhn-nhs/on/rideau/histoire-history . live.
150. Web site: Jess . 2011-11-14 . Ottawa UnLOCKed: Finding the key to conquering Canada’s Capital City . 2026-02-21 . GlobetrotterGirls . en-US . 7 November 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251107220637/https://globetrottergirls.com/ottawa-unlocked-rideau-canal/ . live .
151. Web site: Rideau Canal - Rideau Canal World Heritage Site, Ontario, Canada . 2026-02-21 . www.rideau-info.com . 4 January 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260104192652/https://www.rideau-info.com/canal/locks/index.html . live .
152. Web site: Government of Canada . Natural Resources Canada . 7 December 2015 . GEOSCAN Search Results: Fastlink . 13 August 2022 . geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca . 23 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220923212910/https://geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca/starweb/geoscan/servlet.starweb?path=geoscan/fulle.web&search1=R=122374#:~:text=The%20Ottawa%20region%20is%20a,Precambrian%20igneous%20and%20metamorphic%20rocks. . live.
153. Web site: Government of Canada . Natural Resources Canada . Earthquake zones in Eastern Canada . 13 August 2022 . earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca . en . 1 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220901035350/http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/zones/eastcan-en.php#WQSZ . live.
154. Web site: Earthquakes (Ottawa) . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130408102203/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/products-services/mapping-product/geoscape/ottawa/6174 . 8 April 2013 . 4 April 2013 . Natural Resources Canada.
155. News: 24 February 2006 . Earthquake shakes Ottawa . . dead . 17 April 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120213171831/http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=24de3df5-eb4b-41de-8a31-9eb3ea0ed480&k=77474 . 13 February 2012.
156. Web site: 23 June 2010 . Magnitude 5.5 – Ontario-Quebec Border Region, Canada . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100626024653/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/us2010xwa7.php . 26 June 2010 . 23 June 2010 . USGS.
157. News: 17 May 2013 . Earthquake shakes Ottawa . . live . 17 May 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130518200929/http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/earthquake-rattles-residents-in-ontario-quebec-1.1285923 . 18 May 2013.
158. Web site: 7 March 2011 . Rideau Canal Skateway – National Capital Commission:: . 7 June 2011 . Canadian Heritage . 18 January 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200118140436/https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/places/rideau-canal-skateway . live.
159. Web site: Rideau Canal . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110906172404/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1221 . 6 September 2011 . 27 May 2011 . UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
160. Web site: Rodgers . Richard . Ottawa's Lower Town . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20210624122817/http://www.gta.igs.net/~rrodgers/lowertown/Lower_Town.htm . 24 June 2021 . 2 May 2021 . IGS.
161. Web site: City of Ottawa . Centretown Community Design Plan, Part 1 . 13 August 2022 . 14 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220114194609/https://documents.ottawa.ca/sites/documents/files/documents/2centretowncdp_en.pdf . live.
162. Web site: City of Ottawa . 20 July 2017 . Centretown Community Design Plan . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220114194615/https://ottawa.ca/en/centretown-community-design-plan . 14 January 2022 . 13 July 2022. Document 2A Page: 13.
163. Web site: Government of Canada . Public Services and Procurement Canada . 31 July 2015 . Discover the Parliamentary Precinct – Canada's Parliamentary Precinct - PSPC . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220621125422/https://www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/citeparlementaire-parliamentaryprecinct/decouvrez-discover/index-eng.html . 21 June 2022 . 13 July 2022 . www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca.
164. Web site: Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220507065321/https://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/dfhd/page_fhbro_eng.aspx?id=2992 . 7 May 2022 . 13 July 2022 . www.pc.gc.ca . en.
165. News: Panico . Giacomo . 1 November 2019 . Sparks Street's great divide bad for business, merchants say . CBC News Ottawa . live . 13 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201101003444/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/sparks-street-s-great-divide-bad-for-business-merchants-say-1.5339340 . 1 November 2020.
166. Web site: Canada . Supreme Court of . 1 January 2001 . Supreme Court of Canada - The Court - SCC Building . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220603161227/https://scc-csc.ca/court-cour/buil-edi-eng.aspx . 3 June 2022 . 13 July 2022 . www.scc-csc.ca.
167. Book: Eran Razin . Metropolitan governing: Canadian cases, comparative lessons . Patrick J. Smith . University of Alberta . 2006 . 978-965-493-285-1 . 79 . 15 November 2015 . registration.
168. Web site: 30 September 2013 . Consolidated federal laws of Canada, National Capital Act . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220502032420/https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-4/page-3.html#h-374470 . 2 May 2022 . 13 July 2022 . laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.
169. Erickson . Donna L . 2004 . The relationship of historic city form and contemporary greenway implementation: a comparison of Milwaukee, Wisconsin (USA) and Ottawa, Ontario (Canada) . Landscape and Urban Planning . 68 . 2–3 . 206 . 10.1.1.508.4274 . 10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00160-9 . 2004LUrbP..68..199E . 86215921 . 0169-2046.
170. Book: The protected landscape approach: linking nature, culture and community . IUCN—The World Conservation Union . 2005 . 978-2-8317-0797-6 . Jessica Brown . 195 . Nora J. Mitchell . Michael Beresford.
171. Web site: Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions (municipalities), Ontario . . 9 February 2022 . 27 March 2022 . 12 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220512141434/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000203&geocode=A000235 . live.
172. Web site: Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations . . 9 February 2022 . 28 March 2022 . 27 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220327085922/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000501 . live.
173. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario;Canada [Country] ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
174. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario;Canada [Country] ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
175. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 26 October 2022 . Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population . 9 November 2022 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 11 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221111073843/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0&DGUIDlist=2021A00053506008&SearchText=ottawa . live.
176. Web site: National Household Survey Profile, 2011 . 19 September 2014 . Statistics Canada . 8 May 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140808104756/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3506008&Data=Count&SearchText=Ottawa&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=3506008&TABID=1 . 8 August 2014 . live.
177. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
178. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
179. Web site: Bilingualism Policy . City of Ottawa . 2011 . 22 July 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110814023328/http://ottawa.ca/city_hall/policies/bilingualism_policy/index_en.html . 14 August 2011 . dead.
180. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
181. Web site: 2017-07-25 . Ottawa-Gatineau, the national capital which language differences nearly split into two countries . 2026-02-21 . CityMonitor . en-US.
182. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario;Ottawa - Gatineau [Census metropolitan area], Ontario/Quebec ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
183. Web site: Income Highlight Tables, 2016 Census . Government of Canada . 8 February 2017 . Statistics Canada . 24 September 2019 . 30 September 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190930184727/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/inc-rev/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&T=102&PR=0&D1=1&RPP=25&SR=1&S=104&O=D . live.
184. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-02-09 . Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Ottawa, City (CV) [Census subdivision], Ontario;Canada [Country] ]. 2026-02-21 . www12.statcan.gc.ca . 9 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E . live .
185. Web site: Labour Force & Employment . 24 July 2022 . Ottawa Insights . en-US . 29 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220529023344/https://www.ottawainsights.ca/themes/employment-and-opportunity/employment/ . live.
186. Web site: Big job gains in April produce record employment levels for the region . 25 July 2022 . ottawacitizen . en-CA . 17 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220517012942/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/ottawas-jobless-rate-falls-to-4-6-per-cent-in-april . live.
187. Web site: 10 January 2026 . Ottawa places first among North American cities in new quality of life rankings . 11 January 2026 . CIC News . en . live.
188. Web site: Rodrigues . Janice . 2024-12-14 . Canadian cities rank among best in the world for quality of life in 2024 CIC News . 2026-02-19 . en-US . 15 December 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251215022207/https://www.cicnews.com/2024/12/canadian-cities-rank-among-best-in-the-world-for-quality-of-life-in-2024-1249531.html . live .
189. Web site: City of Ottawa . 2016 . Employment Survey . 25 July 2022 . 31 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221031194518/https://documents.ottawa.ca/sites/documents/files/employment_survey_2106_en.pdf . live.
190. News: Six-year consolidation of National Defence Headquarters given green light . Maclean's . Canadian Press . 13 December 2013 . 20 September 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141129114337/http://www.macleans.ca/general/six-year-long-consolidation-of-national-defence-headquarters-given-green-light/ . 29 November 2014 . live.
191. Web site: About the Ceremonial Guard . 19 September 2014 . Government of Canada . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140916233349/http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/ceremonial-guard/about.page . 16 September 2014.
192. News: Sali . David . 25 May 2018 . Ottawa Business Journal . 25 July 2022 . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725005221/https://www.obj.ca/article/armed-fresh-funding-ottawa-tourism-sector-avoiding-canada-150-hangover . dead.
193. Web site: Economic impact study . 25 July 2022 . Ottawa Tourism . en . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725005221/https://ottawatourism.ca/en/destination-development/research/economic-impact-study . live.
194. Web site: interVISTAS . City of Ottawa . Economic Impact of Tourism in Ottawa . 2020 . 25 July 2022 . 31 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221031181102/https://ottawatourism.ca/sites/default/files/media/documents/2020-06/Economic-Impact-of-Tourism-in-Ottawa-Executive-Summary.pdf . live.
195. Web site: Intervistas . 2024 . 2024 Economic Impact of Tourism in Ottawa . Ottawa Tourism . 21 February 2026 . 12 September 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240912211534/https://ottawatourism.ca/sites/default/files/media/documents/Economic-Impact-of-Tourism-in-Ottawa-Executive-Summary-2024.pdf#page=2 . live .
196. Web site: Tech jobs near all-time high as Region's jobless rate hits 6.8% . www.ottawacitizen.com . 13 October 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024433/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/business/Tech+jobs+near+time+high+Region+jobless+rate+hits/9819243/story.html . 17 November 2015 . live.
197. Book: Leonel Corona Treviño . Jérôme Doutriaux . Sarfraz A. Mian . Building knowledge regions in North America: emerging technology innovation poles . 2006 . Edward Elgar Publishing . 978-1-84542-430-5 . 101 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160430040144/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rjok73CxF4C&pg=PA101 . 30 April 2016 . live.
198. Book: Nick Novakowski . Rémy Tremblay . Perspectives on Ottawa's High-tech Sector . 2007 . Peter Lang . 978-90-5201-370-1 . 43–71 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160513081027/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3EC4nqKcmIC&pg=PA43 . 13 May 2016 . live.
199. News: Jones . Allison . 8 February 2017 . Canada Census 2016: Ontario growth still slowing, but those who went West might soon be back . National Post . Toronto . 8 February 2017 . 5 November 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231105224008/https://nationalpost.com/category/news/ . live.
200. Web site: 2006 City of Ottawa Health Status Report . Ottawa Public Health . 2006 . 7 October 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120118093314/http://ottawa.ca/doc_repository/reports/hsr_2006_en.pdf . 18 January 2012.
201. Web site: City of Ottawa – 40. Major Employers in City of Ottawa, 2006 . Ottawa.ca . 2 August 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20111128071342/http://www.ottawa.ca/residents/statistics/data_handbook/economics/table_40_en.html . 28 November 2011 . live.
202. Web site: OCRI | Life Sciences . Ocri.ca . 2 August 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110807095155/http://ocri.ca/lifesciences . 7 August 2011.
203. Web site: CanaData – The Industrial Structure of Canada's Major City Labour Markets . Reed Construction Data . November 2009 . 5 August 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050135/http://www.myjobsite.ca/images/CanaData_Labour_Market_Report.pdf . 19 January 2012 . live.
204. Web site: City of Ottawa – Compensation . ottawa.ca . 5 August 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20101230190053/http://www.ottawa.ca/city_hall/financial/lrfp3/financial_profile/part_a/compensation_en.html . 30 December 2010 . live.
205. Web site: Full-time Equivalent (FTE) Count - 2019 . 25 July 2022 . open.ottawa.ca . en-us . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725005221/https://open.ottawa.ca/documents/ottawa::full-time-equivalent-fte-count-2019/about . live.
206. Web site: 12 April 2021 . About Us . 25 July 2022 . www.ottawapolice.ca . en . 11 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220811165905/https://www.ottawapolice.ca/en/About-Us.aspx . dead.
207. Web site: City of Ottawa . 2021 . 2020 Annual Development Report . 25 July 2022 . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725005216/https://documents.ottawa.ca/sites/documents/files/2020_devreport_en.pdf . live.
208. Web site: City of Ottawa . Annual Development Report 2008 . May 2009 . 22 September 2019 . 6 August 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200806033112/https://app06.ottawa.ca/calendar/ottawa/citycouncil/pec/2009/06-23/ADR%202008.pdf . live.
209. Web site: Press . The Canadian . 2025-12-05 . Region’s unemployment rate remains elevated at 7.4%, as national rate declines to 6.5% . 2026-02-21 . en-US . 13 January 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260113101416/https://obj.ca/region-unemployment-rate-remains-elevated-national-decline/ . live .
210. News: 2026-02-16 . Ottawa has the worst job market in Canada, faring worse than cities with tariff-hit industries . 2026-02-21 . The Globe and Mail . en-CA.
211. Web site: City of Ottawa ups spending on its rural economy . 9 November 2020 . Ottawa Business Journal . 9 March 2020 . 13 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201113191956/https://obj.ca/article/city-ottawa-ups-spending-its-rural-economy . live.
212. Web site: Ottawa Newspapers . 25 July 2022 . www.all-about-ottawa.com . 31 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221031035121/https://www.all-about-ottawa.com/ottawa-newspapers/ . live.
213. CBC (2023). Le Droit goes digital after more than a century in print. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/le-droit-french-language-newspaper-prints-last-paper-copy-1.7071662
214. Web site: Cjroradio Ottawa Community Radio station . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220714034331/https://www.cjroradio.com/about . 14 July 2022 . 13 July 2022 . cjroradio . en.
215. Web site: Nouvelles d'Ottawa-Gatineau, météo et plus ICI Radio-Canada.ca . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220712043745/https://ici.radio-canada.ca/ottawa-gatineau . 12 July 2022 . 13 July 2022 . Radio-Canada . fr.
216. Web site: Watch CTV News Local Video CTV News Ottawa . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20220705205547/https://ottawa.ctvnews.ca/video?binId=1.1164587 . 5 July 2022 . 13 July 2022 . ottawa.ctvnews.ca . en.
217. Web site: About CPAC . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180720165531/http://www.cpac.ca/en/about-cpac/ . 20 July 2018 . 20 July 2018 . CPAC.
218. Web site: By Name - Canadian Parliamentary Press Gallery . 2026-02-21 . www.press-presse.ca . 19 March 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20250319144329/https://www.press-presse.ca/en/press-gallery-members/name . live .
219. Web site: Canadian Broadcasting Centre The Canadian Encyclopedia . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220130190404/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-broadcasting-centre . 30 January 2022 . 13 July 2022 . www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca.
220. Ottawa Carleton District School Board (2025). Annual Director's Report. https://www.ocdsb.ca/download/548396 pp. 6
221. Web site: 2024-2025 Director's Annual Report . 2026-02-21 . OCSB Director's Annual Report . en-GB.
222. Web site: Trouver une école Conseil des écoles catholiques du Centre-Est . 2026-02-21 . www.ecolecatholique.ca . fr . 14 December 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251214161236/https://www.ecolecatholique.ca/trouver-une-ecole . live .
223. Conseil des écoles publiques de l'Est de l'Ontario (2020). Plan stratégique 2020-2026. https://cepeo.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2020-11-CEPEO-PlanStragegique-version2026-4.pdf pp. 6
224. Web site: Ottawa Private Schools Our Kids . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20210803202954/https://www.ourkids.net/ottawa-private-schools.php . 3 August 2021 . 13 July 2022 . www.ourkids.net . en.
225. Web site: Notes from the Ottawa Room... The Carnegie Library – Ottawa's First Public Library – 100 Years Old on April 30, 2006 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110706184950/http://24369.vws.magma.ca/connect/research/local/carnegie_library_e.html . 6 July 2011 . 12 March 2011 . Ottawa Public Library.
226. Web site: 2008 . Strategic Directions and Priorities 2008–2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110607181537/http://biblioottawalibrary.ca/archive/board/strat_plans/strategic_e.pdf . 7 June 2011 . 12 March 2011 . Ottawa Public Library.
227. Web site: About OPL Ottawa Public Library . 2026-02-21 . about.biblioottawalibrary.ca.
228. Web site: OPL’s 2024 Annual Report Is Live — See What You Helped Us Achieve Ottawa Public Library . 2026-02-21 . collections.biblioottawalibrary.ca.
229. Web site: 2025 . OPL’s Impact: Inspiring and Empowering Ottawa, 2024 Annual Report . Ottawa Public Library.
230. Web site: Quick Facts About Ottawa . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20100305032251/http://www.ottawa.ca/city_hall/glance/business_en.html . 5 March 2010 . 30 June 2010 . City of Ottawa.
231. News: Zakaluzny . Roman . Where must Ottawa's tech sector go from here? . Ottawa Business Journal . 16 April 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070928061307/http://www.ottawabusinessjournal.com/290233008271272.php . 28 September 2007.
232. Web site: 2025-10-14 . Canada’s Best Comprehensive Universities for 2026 . 2026-02-21 . Macleans.ca . fr-CA.
233. Web site: How to Get to Carleton University . 2026-02-21 . Our Campus . en-US . 17 December 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251217024156/https://carleton.ca/campus/directions/ . live .
234. Web site: University of Ottawa – Quick Facts 2014 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20141029033641/http://www.uottawa.ca/services/irp/docs/QF2014-EN-2.pdf . 29 October 2014 . 15 October 2014 . University of Ottawa.
235. Web site: 18 February 2011 . U15 Submission to the Expert Review Panel on Research and Development . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120313024055/http://rd-review.ca/eic/site/033.nsf/vwapj/sub198.pdf/$file/sub198.pdf . 13 March 2012 . 25 May 2012 . Review of Federal Support to R&D.
236. Web site: Campus maps . 2026-02-21 . About us . en . 17 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260217212711/https://www.uottawa.ca/about-us/administration-services/facilities/campus-maps . live .
237. Web site: Algonquin College - 40th Anniversary . 2026-02-21 . www7.algonquincollege.com . 24 November 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121124043539/http://algonquincollege.com/40th/history.htm . live .
238. Web site: Colleges in Ontario . 25 July 2022 . ontariocolleges.ca . en . 13 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220713235037/https://www.ontariocolleges.ca/en/colleges . live.
239. Web site: Technology . Algonquin College of Applied Arts and . Ottawa Campus . 2026-02-21 . en-US.
240. Web site: La Cité . 2026-02-21 . Collèges de l'Ontario . fr . 20 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260220151520/https://www.ontariocolleges.ca/fr/les-colleges/la-cite . live .
241. Web site: canadienne-française . Centre de recherche en civilisation . 2017-07-20 . La Cité collégiale . 2026-02-21 . Vie française dans la capitale . fr.
242. Web site: Campus et installations . 2026-02-21 . La Cité . fr-FR.
243. Web site: Canada . Global Affairs . 6 September 2018 . Map of colleges and universities . 25 July 2022 . www.educanada.ca . 19 June 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220619221911/https://www.educanada.ca/programs-programmes/map-carte.aspx?lang=eng . live.
244. Web site: 2026-01-26 . Home . 2026-02-22 . Polytechnics Canada . en-US.
245. Web site: Contact . 2026-02-22 . Universities Canada . en-US.
246. Web site: Canada . Colleges and Institutes . Home . 2026-02-22 . Colleges and Institutes Canada . en-US.
247. Web site: Accueil . 2026-02-22 . ACUFC . fr-CA . 18 January 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260118034707/https://acufc.ca/ . live .
248. Web site: 2022-07-27 . Home - U15 Canada . 2026-02-22 . en-US.
249. Web site: Homepage . 2026-02-22 . CAUT . en-US . 18 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260218123554/https://www.caut.ca/ . live .
250. Web site: Canadian Alliance of Student Associations . 2026-02-22 . Canadian Alliance of Student Associations . en . 14 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260214113156/https://www.casa-acae.com/ . live .
251. Web site: Contact Canadian Federation of Students . 2026-02-22 . www.cfs-fcee.ca . en.
252. Web site: NEADS . 2026-02-22 . www.neads.ca.
253. News: Boost for science: $1.5 billion in federal funding for two new Ottawa labs . https://web.archive.org/web/20250725101934/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/science-federal-funding-ottawa-labs . 25 July 2025 . 2026-02-22 . ottawacitizen . en . live .
254. Web site: Facilities . https://web.archive.org/web/20220914140612/https://profils-profiles.science.gc.ca/en/facilities?f%5B0%5D=field_organization%3A787 . 14 September 2022 . 2026-02-22 . profils-profiles.science.gc.ca . en . live .
255. Web site: Canada . Agriculture and Agri-Food . 2009-02-05 . Central Experimental Farm . 2026-02-22 . agriculture.canada.ca . 13 November 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251113220749/https://agriculture.canada.ca/en/contact/central-experimental-farm . live .
256. Web site: Finding healthcare . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141101055713/http://ottawa.ca/en/residents/public-health/healthcare/finding-healthcare#P46_1193 . 1 November 2014 . 20 September 2014 . City of Ottawa.
257. Web site: 2023-04-18 . General hospital locations ontario.ca . 2026-02-22 . www.ontario.ca . en.
258. Web site: Affiliated Teaching Hospitals . 11 August 2022 . uOttawa.ca . 11 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220811040203/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/patho/eng/affiliated.html . live.
259. Book: Arthur Bousfield . Garry Toffoli . Royal spring: the royal tour of 1939 and the Queen Mother in Canada . 1989 . Dundurn Press Ltd. . 978-1-55002-065-6 . 34 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160425102153/https://books.google.com/books?id=1Go5p_CN8UQC&pg=PA34 . 25 April 2016 . live.
260. Book: J. L. Granatstein . The last good war: an illustrated history of Canada in the Second World War, 1939–1945 . registration . 21 March 2005 . Douglas & McIntyre . 978-1-55054-913-3 . 223– . 15 November 2015.
261. Book: Ruth Solski . Big Book of Canadian Celebrations: Grades 4–6 . 2006 . S&S Learning Materials . 978-1-55035-851-3 . 83 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160425091723/https://books.google.com/books?id=w8s7-m6yOnwC&pg=PA83 . 25 April 2016 . live.
262. Web site: Canada . Public Services and Procurement . 2023-08-15 . Parliament Hill flags . 2026-02-22 . www.canada.ca . 15 July 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20250715234310/https://www.canada.ca/en/public-services-procurement/services/infrastructure-buildings/parliamentary-precinct/discover/peace-tower/flags.html . live .
263. News: Lindeman . Tracey . July 2, 2016 . As Canada turns 149, we still enjoy our centennial legacy . CBC.
264. Book: Derek Hayes . Canada: an illustrated history . 2008 . Douglas & McIntyre . 978-1-55365-259-5 . 271 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160505020500/https://books.google.com/books?id=hrkq7t_4080C&pg=PA271 . 5 May 2016 . live.
265. News: June 13, 2019 . Charles and Diana's 1983 royal tour was capped by 2 birthdays . CBC . 26 September 2022 . 22 February 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220926184755/https://www.cbc.ca/archives/charles-diana-canada-visit-1983-1.5170991 . live .
266. News: Royal tour begins with unhurried walkabout . 30 June 2011 . The Chronicle-Herald . 30 June 2011 . The Canadian Press . Halifax NS . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110702195512/http://thechronicleherald.ca/Front/9021323.html . 2 July 2011.
267. Web site: Andrew King: For Our Eyes Only, tracking Bond in Ottawa . 25 July 2022 . ottawacitizen . en-CA . 16 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230316053149/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/andrew-king-for-our-eyes-only-tracking-bond-in-ottawa . live.
268. Web site: Parks Canada Agency . Government of Canada . 2022-11-21 . UNESCO World Heritage Site . 2026-02-22 . parks.canada.ca . 29 January 2026 . https://web.archive.org/web/20260129104628/https://parks.canada.ca/lhn-nhs/on/rideau/histoire-history/pm-we . live .
269. Web site: Parks Canada - DFHD - Search Results . 2026-02-22 . www.pc.gc.ca.
270. Web site: 2011 . Heritage Designation Program . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110617044338/http://www.ottawa.ca/residents/planning/built_heritage/designation/index_en.html . 17 June 2011 . 8 June 2011 . City of Ottawa.
271. Web site: 2015-10-14 . THE NATIONAL ARTS CENTRE REGRETS THE CLOSURE OF OPERA LYRA . 2026-02-22 . nac-cna.ca . en-CA.
272. Web site: About 2 . 2026-02-22 . Ottawa Symphony Orchestra . en-US . 23 December 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251223000335/https://ottawasymphony.com/history . live .
273. Web site: 13 January 2011 . Great Canadian Theatre Company . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20120204044118/http://www.canadiantheatre.com/dict.pl?term=Great%20Canadian%20Theatre%20Company . 4 February 2012 . 1 September 2011 . Canadian Theatre Encyclopedia.
274. Web site: City of Ottawa – Museums and History . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110530162324/http://www.ottawa.ca/visitors/what_to_do/museums_history_en.html . 30 May 2011 . 7 June 2011 . City of Ottawa.
275. Web site: National Gallery of Canada – Ottawa Tourism Official Site . Ottawatourism.ca . 7 June 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111006194316/http://www.ottawatourism.ca/old/de/visitors/attractions/fast-facts-ottawa/366-fast-facts-national-gallery . 6 October 2011.
276. Web site: WarMuseum.ca – About the Museum – Mission . Civilization.ca . 7 October 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20111027150013/http://www.warmuseum.ca/about-us/corporation/about-the-corporation/about-the-canadian-museum-of-civilization-corporation/ . 27 October 2011 . live.
277. War Museum. Canadian War Museum Fact Sheet. https://www.warmuseum.ca/app/DocRepository/12/About_the_Museum/fastfactse.pdf
278. Web site: Canada . Museum History | Canadian Museum of Nature . Nature.ca . 19 January 2011 . 7 June 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141109032533/http://nature.ca/en/about-us/history-buildings/museum-history . 9 November 2014 . live.
279. News: CBC News Ottawa . 2012 . Museum of Nature to transform into nightclub . 25 July 2022 . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725022939/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/museum-of-nature-to-transform-into-nightclub-1.1242324 . live.
280. Web site: 4 June 2010 . Rare blue whale skeleton on display at Ottawa's Canadian Museum of Nature . 25 July 2022 . thestar.com . en . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725022939/https://www.thestar.com/life/travel/2010/06/04/rare_blue_whale_skeleton_on_display_at_ottawas_canadian_museum_of_nature.html . live.
281. News: Shawarma: the staple of Ottawa cuisine . https://web.archive.org/web/20241130022345/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/shawarma-the-staple-of-ottawa-cuisine . 30 November 2024 . 2026-02-22 . ottawacitizen . en . live .
282. News: Ottawa's official food: What dish defines us? . 20 August 2022 . CBC . CBC News . 9 December 2015 . 20 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220820051943/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-official-food-donair-shawarma-1.3356996 . live.
283. Web site: Deachman . Bruce . Shawarma: the staple of Ottawa cuisine . Ottawa Citizen . 20 August 2022 . 19 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220119004455/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/shawarma-the-staple-of-ottawa-cuisine . live.
284. Web site: Le Cordon Bleu . Le Cordon Bleu . 22 August 2022 . 16 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220816035134/https://www.cordonbleu.edu/ottawa/en . live.
285. Web site: Buckland . Jason . 4 July 2010 . 2. Winterlude – Biggest festivals in Canada . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111009153634/http://money.ca.msn.com/savings-debt/gallery/gallery.aspx?cp-documentid=24740236&page=7 . 9 October 2011 . 13 July 2011 . Money.ca.msn.com.
286. Web site: Strong-Boag . Veronica . 2017-06-30 . Contesting Canada Day : A Tradition of Engagement, Challenges and Change . 2026-02-22 . Active History . en-CA . 17 October 2025 . https://web.archive.org/web/20251017151237/https://activehistory.ca/blog/2017/06/30/contestingcanadaday/ . live .
287. Web site: 2011 . Ottawa Bluesfest . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110704093409/http://www.ottawa-information-guide.com/ottawa-bluesfest.html . 4 July 2011 . 29 June 2011 . Ottawa-Information-Guide.
288. Web site: Clapperton . Nina . Ottawa Tulip Festival . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220410012548/https://ninaoutandabout.ca/canadian-ottawa-tulip-festival/ . 10 April 2022 . 10 April 2022 . Nina Out and About.
289. Web site: Tim Hortons Ottawa Dragon Boat Festival Ottawa Tourism . 2026-02-22 . ottawatourism.ca . en.
290. Web site: Ottawa Jazz Festival Ottawa Tourism . 2026-02-22 . ottawatourism.ca . en.
291. Web site: Capital Pride Ottawa Tourism . 2026-02-22 . ottawatourism.ca . en.
292. Web site: CityFolk Ottawa Tourism . 2026-02-22 . ottawatourism.ca . en.
293. Web site: 16 September 2010 . 2010 IFEA World Festival & Event City Award . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110713003630/http://www.ifea.com/joomla1_5/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=244&Itemid=476 . 13 July 2011 . 29 June 2011 . International Festivals and Events Association.
294. Web site: Contact Us Ottawa Senators . 2026-02-22 . www.nhl.com . en.
295. Web site: Gretz . Adam . 2014-09-17 . Remembering the original Ottawa Senators, the NHL’s 1st dynasty . 2026-02-22 . SB Nation . en-US.
296. Book: Don Weekes . Kerry Banks . The Unofficial Guide to Hockey's Most Unusual Records . 2002 . Greystone Books . 978-1-55054-942-3 . 122– . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160513073714/https://books.google.com/books?id=jbihEP6nuKcC&pg=PA122 . 13 May 2016 . live.
297. News: Donkin . Karissa . 12 November 2023 . A new era . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20231113103154/https://www.cbc.ca/newsinteractives/features/Ottawa-PWHL-womens-hockey-the-next-chapter . 13 November 2023 . 5 January 2024 . CBC Sports.
298. News: Political hurdles all but cleared for team to hit field in 2013 . 29 June 2011 . Toronto Sun – Sports . 29 July 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110607101050/http://www.torontosun.com/sports/football/2010/06/29/14551341.html . 7 June 2011 . live.
299. Web site: 2020-07-03 . Ottawa Rough Riders - Fun While It Lasted . 2026-02-22 . en-US.
300. Web site: CPL . 2020-02-07 . Club Atlético de Madrid welcomed as owners of CPL team in Ottawa . 2026-02-22 . CPL . en.
301. Web site: Stadium Profile . 14 July 2022 . Atlético Ottawa . en-CA . 13 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200213085312/https://atleticoottawa.canpl.ca/stadium-profile/ . live.
302. News: Holder . Gord . April 26, 2025 . Ottawa Rapid FC: Everything you need to know about Ottawa women's pro soccer franchise . January 28, 2026 . Ottawa Citizen.
303. Web site: jerrymilani . 2024-02-21 . National Lacrosse League announces launch of Ottawa Black Bears franchise . 2026-02-22 . NLL . en-US.
304. Web site: Ottawa Black Bears Ottawa Tourism . 2026-02-22 . ottawatourism.ca . en.
305. News: Ottawa Blackjacks to leap into action next spring . CBC News . 20 November 2019 . 11 March 2020 . 28 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191128200505/https://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.5366182 . live.
306. News: Ottawa SkyHawks kicked out of National Basketball League of Canada . CBC News . 13 July 2022 . 7 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220307040523/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-skyhawks-kicked-out-of-national-basketball-league-of-canada-1.2724097 . live.
307. Web site: Ottawa Stadium Ottawa Titans Baseball Club . 13 July 2022 . ottawatitans.com . 7 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220307132127/https://ottawatitans.com/rcgt-park/ . live.
308. News: Ottawa Champions left off new league's 2020 roster . CBC News . 13 July 2022 . 7 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220307022727/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-champions-left-off-2020-roster-1.5323308 . live.
309. Web site: Ottawa Lynx team ownership history – Society for American Baseball Research . 2026-02-22 . en-US.
310. USports (2026). Members. https://en.usports.ca/HQ/Members/U_SPORTS_Members
311. OCAA. (2026). Members. https://www.ocaa.com/student/directory
312. Web site: - NATIONALLY RANKED MEN'S TEAMS PREVAIL . Canada Basketball . 2009 . 7 July 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110727105410/http://www.basketball.ca/en/hm/inside.php?sid=1&id=2833 . 27 July 2011.
313. Web site: Baines . Tim . DYNASTY? There's nothing quite like what Carleton Ravens men's basketball team has done . Ottawa Sun . 14 August 2022 . 19 September 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210919144616/https://ottawasun.com/sports/basketball/dynasty-theres-nothing-quite-like-what-carleton-ravens-mens-basketball-team-has-done . live.
314. Web site: 14 January 2020 . National Top Ten Update: Five teams remain ranked . en . 13 July 2022 . 24 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201124011041/https://teams.geegees.ca/general/2019-20/releases/20200114mx1ij7 . live.
315. Book: Mark Kearney . Randy Ray . The Big Book of Canadian Trivia . registration . 2009 . Dundurn Press . 978-1-55488-417-9 . 241– . 15 November 2015.
316. Web site: 2013-11-21 . Amateur Sports Leagues Ottawa Lives Here . 2026-02-22 . en-US.
317. Web site: Sports and Outdoor . City of Ottawa . 7 July 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110906052719/http://www.ottawa.ca/visitors/what_to_do/sports_outdoor_en.html . 6 September 2011.
318. Web site: 2025 IRONMAN Canada - Ottawa - Sunday, August 3, 2025 . 24 August 2024 . Triathlons, marathons, half-marathons, mountain bike & running races.
319. Book: Enid Slack . Rupak Chattopadhyay . Finance and Governance of Capital Cities in Federal Systems . 2009 . McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP . 978-0-7735-3565-7 . 61 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160429113526/https://books.google.com/books?id=2RBv66RWYHQC&pg=PA61 . 29 April 2016 . live.
320. Web site: Ontario Municipalities AMO . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220412221617/https://www.amo.on.ca/about-us/municipal-101/ontario-municipalities#Single . 12 April 2022 . 14 July 2022 . www.amo.on.ca.
321. City of Ottawa. 2021 Census. https://ottawa.ca/en/living-ottawa/statistics-and-demographics/2021-census/population-and-dwelling-counts
322. Web site: Mayor and City Councillors City of Ottawa . 25 July 2022 . ottawa.ca . 2 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220802214459/https://ottawa.ca/en/city-hall/mayor-and-city-councillors . live.
323. News: MacDiarmid . Campbell . June 2, 2025 . Strong mayor powers used to block majority on fractious eastern Ontario council . CBC.
324. Book: Tony L. Hill . Canadian politics, riding by riding: an in-depth analysis of Canada's 301 federal electoral districts . 2002 . Prospect Park Press . 978-0-9723436-0-2 . 184 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160609194025/https://books.google.com/books?id=opvmE2AExc8C&pg=PA184 . 9 June 2016 . live.
325. Web site: Piper . Jillian . 21 September 2021 . In stand-pat federal vote, Ottawa remains Liberal stronghold . 25 July 2022 . Capital Current . en-CA . 29 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220529044810/https://capitalcurrent.ca/in-stand-pat-federal-vote-that-changes-little-nationwide-ottawa-remains-the-liberal-stronghold-it-was-in-2019/ . live.
326. Web site: Former Ottawa Centre MP Paul Dewar: 1963-2019 . 14 August 2022 . ottawacitizen . en-CA . 5 December 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211205222224/https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/former-ottawa-centre-mp-paul-dewar-has-died . live.
327. News: Canada . Global Affairs . Labels with Diplomatic Missions . http://web.archive.org/web/20250920081355/https://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/addresses.aspx?lang=eng . 2025-09-20 . 2026-02-22 . GAC . en.
328. News: Canada . Global Affairs . Labels with Diplomatic Missions . http://web.archive.org/web/20250920081355/https://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/addresses.aspx?lang=eng . 2025-09-20 . 2026-02-22 . GAC . en.
329. Web site: About OC Transpo . 2009 . OC Transpo . 6 January 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20101113035431/http://www.octranspo1.com/about-octranspo/ . 13 November 2010 . live.
330. Web site: Our services . 16 February 2020 . OC Transpo . 17 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200217130833/http://www.octranspo.com/en/our-services/ . live.
331. Web site: Expanding O-Train service . OC Transpo . 16 February 2020 . 16 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200216190331/http://www.octranspo.com/en/ready-for-rail/transforming-the-service/expanding-o-train-service . live.
332. Web site: Vehicles . OC Transpo . 28 September 2023 . 6 September 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230906201722/https://www.octranspo.com/en/our-services/bus-o-train-network/vehicles/ . live.
333. Web site: Stage 2 Ottawa . Stage2lrt.ca . 22 July 2015 . 16 April 2016 . live . 22 March 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160322133748/http://www.stage2lrt.ca/.
334. Web site: Line 4 OC Transpo . http://web.archive.org/web/20250406141737/https://www.octranspo.com/en/our-services/o-train-network/line-4 . 2025-04-06 . 2026-02-22 . www.octranspo.com . en-ca.
335. Web site: Spacing . 2015-01-30 . OC Transpo gets graphic: The transitway map . 2026-02-22 . Spacing Ottawa . en-US.
336. Web site: Service types . OC Transpo . 16 February 2020 . 17 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200217184613/http://www.octranspo.com/en/our-services/bus-o-train-network/service-types . live.
337. Web site: Downtown Ottawa STO . 2026-02-22 . www.sto.ca . en.
338. OC Transpo. 2026. Route 8 Schedule. https://www.octranspo.com/en/plan-your-trip/schedules-maps/?sched-lang=en&date=20260221&rte=8
339. News: Gatineau reveals $2.1B LRT plan, eyes 2028 launch . 20 December 2018 . CBC . 20 June 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181114184041/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/gatineau-aylmer-ottawa-light-rail-1.4713843 . 14 November 2018 . live.
340. Ottawa Macdonald--Cartier International Airport Authority. Our Story. https://www.yow.ca/about-yow/our-story
341. Book: Laura Purdom . Donald Carroll . Robert Holmes . Traveler's Companion Eastern Canada . 2003 . Globe Pequot . 978-0-7627-2332-4 . 70 . 15 November 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160429031340/https://books.google.com/books?id=nD6yjUail9AC&pg=PA70 . 29 April 2016 . live.
342. Web site: Studio . Tonik Web . L'aéroport . 2026-02-22 . Aéroport de Gatineau . fr.
343. Web site: Services Carp Airport . 2026-02-22 . en-US.
344. Web site: Tremblay . OC Transpo . 4 June 2021 . 7 October 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211007014942/https://www.octranspo.com/en/our-services/stations1/tremblay1/ . live.
345. Web site: Ottawa train station . Via Rail Canada . 4 June 2021 . 3 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210603051627/https://www.viarail.ca/en/explore-our-destinations/stations/ontario/ottawa/station . live.
346. Web site: Travel Ontario and Québec: Corridor train routes VIA Rail . 2026-02-22 . www.viarail.ca.
347. Web site: Fallowfield train station . Via Rail Canada . 4 June 2021 . 4 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210604142937/https://www.viarail.ca/en/explore-our-destinations/stations/ontario/fallowfield . live.
348. Web site: Bus Stops megabus . ca.megabus.com . 4 June 2021 . 23 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210523161240/https://ca.megabus.com/stops . live.
349. Web site: 2023-08-09 . PDF Schedules . 2026-02-22 . www.ontarionorthland.ca.
350. Web site: Autobus Gatineau Schedule - Grand Remous / Ottawa - Ottawa / Grand Remous . autobusgatineau.com . 4 June 2021 . 16 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210516154044/https://nebula.wsimg.com/5319e6b801e78b710fbe67c96a31724a?AccessKeyId=A8F7318CB6209AF92A92&disposition=0&alloworigin=1 . live.
351. Web site: Travelling from Montreal to Ottawa . Orleans Express . 9 July 2021 . 23 February 2022 . 23 February 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220223222927/https://www.orleansexpress.com/en/travelling-montreal-ottawa/ . live.
352. Web site: A city that is more connected with reliable, safe and accessible mobility options . 2026-02-22 . Engage Ottawa . en-US.
353. Web site: Highway . Trans-Canada . Ontario Trans-Canada Highway itineraries and towns . 13 July 2022 . Trans-Canada Highway . en-CA . 19 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220119121351/https://www.transcanadahighway.com/ontario/ . live.
354. Web site: Ontario Highway 416 History - The King's Highways of Ontario . 25 July 2022 . www.thekingshighway.ca . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725035305/http://www.thekingshighway.ca/Highway416.htm . live.
355. Government of Ontario (2025). Official Road Map of Ontario - Map 11. https://www.ontario.ca/files/2025-07/mto-orm-map11-en-fr-2025-07-08.pdf
356. Web site: Story Map Series . 25 July 2022 . ncc-ccn.maps.arcgis.com . 23 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220523111942/https://ncc-ccn.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=e4ace0d0442c4d35b9a3e90f0c632450 . live.
357. Web site: Story Map Series . 2026-02-22 . ncc-ccn.maps.arcgis.com.
358. Web site: Confederation Boulevard, National Capital Commission Web site . 11 February 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060209090858/http://www.canadascapital.gc.ca/bins/ncc_web_content_page.asp?cid=16300-20444-20505&lang=1 . 9 February 2006 . dead.
359. Web site: Capital Pathway . http://web.archive.org/web/20260209045818/https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/places/capital-pathway . 2026-02-09 . 2026-02-22 . National Capital Commission . en.
360. Web site: Transportation Environment & Sustainability . Ottawa Insights . 5 August 2022 . 5 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220805182033/https://www.ottawainsights.ca/themes/environment-and-sustainability/transportation/ . live.
361. Web site: Statistics – Ottawa Counts . Ottawa.ca . 7 June 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110519010548/http://www.ottawa.ca/city_services/statistics/counts/counts_apr_04/index_en.shtml . 19 May 2011 . live.
362. Web site: Capital Pathway Strategic Plan . 25 July 2022 . NCC-CCN . en . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725035305/https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/our-plans/capital-pathway-strategic-plan . live.
363. Web site: Government of Canada . Statistics Canada . 2022-07-13 . Focus on Geography Series, 2021 Census - Ottawa (Census division) . 2026-02-22 . www12.statcan.gc.ca.
364. Web site: Cycling Network Information . Ottawa.ca . City of Ottawa . https://web.archive.org/web/20160918065653/http://ottawa.ca/en/residents/transportation-and-parking/cycling/cycling-network-information . 18 September 2016 . live.
365. Web site: Sparks Street . NCC Watch . 8 June 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110617100655/http://www.nccwatch.org/blunders/sparks.htm . 17 June 2011 . live.
366. Web site: NCC Weekend Bikedays . http://web.archive.org/web/20250806183038/https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/events/weekend-bikedays . 2025-08-06 . 2026-02-22 . National Capital Commission . en.
367. Web site: ByWard Market Public Realm Plan . 1 October 2021 . City of Ottawa . 5 August 2022 . 5 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220805191635/https://ottawa.ca/en/city-hall/public-engagement/projects/byward-market-public-realm-plan . live.
368. Web site: HistoricPlaces.ca - Capital BIXI Takes Ottawa: Pedal into the Past! . 25 July 2022 . www.historicplaces.ca . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725075708/https://www.historicplaces.ca/en/pages/20_bixi.aspx . live.
369. Web site: 25 March 2021 . Ottawa parks the return of a bike-sharing program on city streets . 25 July 2022 . Ottawa . en . 25 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220725035305/https://ottawa.ctvnews.ca/ottawa-parks-the-return-of-a-bike-sharing-program-on-city-streets-1.5362549 . live.
370. City of Ottawa. (2025). E-scooters - 2025 Pilot. https://ottawa.ca/en/city-hall/creating-equal-inclusive-and-diverse-city/accessibility-city/transportation/e-scooters/e-scooter-pilot-2025-season