The, colloquially known in English as the bullet train, is a network of high-speed railway lines in Japan. The system was developed to provide connections between Tokyo and other regions of the country. In addition to long-distance services, some sections in and around the largest metropolitan areas are used for commuter travel.[1] [2]
The first line, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, opened shortly before the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics, the 552.6km (343.4miles) route connects Tōkyō, Yokohama, Nagoya, and Ōsaka, the four largest cities in Japan. It remains the busiest line in the network, carrying 161million passengers in fiscal 2023 and more than 6.5billion passengers in total since opening.[3] [4] During peak periods, up to 16trains per hour operate in each direction, using 16-car trainsets with a seating capacity of 1,323 and a minimum scheduled headway of three minutes.[5]
Since the opening of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, the network has expanded to include of lines with maximum operating speeds ranging from, the latter achieved on a 387.5km (240.8miles) section of the Tōhoku Shinkansen.[6] The network also includes of mini-Shinkansen lines with maximum speeds of and of spur lines with Shinkansen services.[7] Shinkansen services operate to most major cities on the islands of Honshu and Kyushu and extend to Hakodate on Hokkaido, with an extension to Sapporo under construction and scheduled to open at the end of fiscal year 2038.[8] [9] In 2024, the Shinkansen network recorded 385.9 million passenger journeys.[10]
literally means new main line or new trunk line in Japanese. The term is used to refer both to the dedicated high-speed railway infrastructure and to the trains that operate on it.[11] [12]
In English, Shinkansen trains are commonly referred to as the bullet train. This expression is a literal translation of the Japanese nickname, which dates to 1939 and was originally applied to early high-speed rail proposals during the initial planning stages of the project.[13] The name later became firmly associated with Shinkansen services due to their high operating speeds and the distinctive, bullet-like profile of the original 0 Series Shinkansen trains.
Japan was the first country to construct railway lines dedicated to high-speed travel. Owing to the country's mountainous terrain, the pre-existing rail network was built primarily to a narrow-gauge and followed indirect alignments. These lines could not be readily adapted for sustained high-speed operation because of inherent technical limitations, including lower permissible speeds on curves compared with wider gauges. For example, a curve allowing a maximum speed of 145km/h on standard-gauge track would typically be limited to around 130km/h on narrow-gauge track. As a result, Japan had a greater need to construct entirely new high-speed lines than countries whose existing standard- or broad-gauge networks offered greater potential for incremental upgrades.
The term Shinkansen was first formally used in 1940 to describe a proposed standard-gauge passenger and freight railway between Tokyo and Shimonoseki. The line was intended to be operated by steam and electric locomotives at speeds of up to . Over the following three years, the Ministry of Railways developed increasingly ambitious plans to extend the route to Beijing—via a proposed tunnel to Korea—and onward to Singapore, forming part of a projected Greater East Asia Railroad serving the Japanese Empire. The network was also envisioned to connect with the Trans-Siberian Railway and other major trunk lines across Asia. These plans were abandoned in 1943 as Japan's strategic position in World War II deteriorated. Nevertheless, limited construction had already begun, and three tunnels built during this period were later incorporated into the present-day Tōkaidō Shinkansen.
Following the end of World War II, high-speed rail was forgotten for several years while traffic of passengers and freight steadily increased on the conventional Tōkaidō Main Line along with the reconstruction of Japanese industry and economy. By the mid-1950s the Tōkaidō Line was operating at full capacity, and the Ministry of Railways decided to revisit the Shinkansen project. In 1957, Odakyu Electric Railway introduced its 3000 series SE Romancecar train, setting a world speed record of 1450NaN0 for a narrow-gauge train when JNR leased a trainset in order to perform high-speed tests.[14] This train gave designers the confidence that they could safely build an even faster standard-gauge train. Thus the first Shinkansen, the 0 series, was built on the success of the Romancecar.
In the 1950s, prevailing opinion in Japan held that railways would soon become obsolete, following trends in the United States toward air travel and highway construction.[15] In contrast, Shinji Sogō, president of Japanese National Railways (JNR), strongly advocated the viability of high-speed rail and played a decisive role in securing political support for the Shinkansen project.[16] Technical leadership was provided by Hideo Shima, JNR's chief engineer. Other major contributors included Tadanao Miki, Tadashi Matsudaira, and Hajime Kawanabe of the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI), then part of JNR. This group was responsible for much of the engineering work on the first Shinkansen line, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen. All three had prior experience in aircraft design during World War II.[17]
Government approval came in December 1958, and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in April 1959. The cost of constructing the Shinkansen was at first estimated at nearly 200 billion yen, which was raised in the form of a government loan, railway bonds and a low-interest loan of US$80 million from the World Bank. Initial estimates, however, were understated and the actual cost was about 380 billion yen.[18] As the budget shortfall became clear in 1963, Sogō resigned to take responsibility.[19]
A test facility for rolling stock, called the Kamonomiya Model Section, opened in Odawara in 1962.[20]
The Tōkaidō Shinkansen began service on 1 October 1964, shortly before the opening of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics on 10 October 1964.[21] Prior to the introduction of the high-speed line, conventional limited express services required approximately 6 hours and 40 minutes to travel between Tokyo and Osaka. With the opening of the Shinkansen, the limited-stop Hikari service reduced the journey time to four hours, while the all-stations Kodama service completed the trip in five hours.[22] The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 series, ran at speeds of up to 2100NaN0, later increased to 2200NaN0, reducing end-to-end trip times on Hikari services three hours and ten minutes.
The new service enabled same-day travel between Tokyo and Osaka, Japan's two largest metropolitan areas, significantly influencing business practices and daily life while generating substantial new passenger demand.
The line was an immediate success, carrying 100 million passengers within three years, a milestone reached on 13 July 1967, and surpassing one billion passengers in 1976. Sixteen-car trainsets were introduced in time for Expo '70 in Osaka.
By 1992, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen carried an average of approximately 23,000 passengers per hour in each direction, making it the world's busiest high-speed rail line at the time.[23] As of 2014, the line's 50th anniversary year, average daily ridership had increased to about 391,000 passengers, which, over an 18-hour operating day, represented an average of just under 22,000 passengers per hour.[24]
The Tōkaidō Shinkansen's rapid success prompted an extension westward to Okayama, Hiroshima and Fukuoka (the San'yō Shinkansen), which was completed in 1975.[25] Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was an ardent supporter of the Shinkansen, and his government proposed an extensive network paralleling most existing trunk lines. Two new lines, the Tōhoku Shinkansen and Jōetsu Shinkansen, were built following this plan. Many other planned lines were delayed or scrapped entirely as JNR slid into debt throughout the late 1970s, largely because of the high cost of building the Shinkansen network and the effects of the 1973 oil crisis.[26] By 1987, the company was deeply in debt, leading to its privatization.[27]
Development of the Shinkansen by the privatised regional JR companies has continued, with new train models developed, each generally with its own distinctive appearance (such as the 500 series introduced by JR West). Since 2014, Shinkansen trains run regularly at speeds up to 320round=5NaNround=5 on the Tōhoku Shinkansen; only the Shanghai maglev train, China Railway High-speed networks, and the Indonesian Jakarta-Bandung High-speed railway have commercial services that operate faster.[28] [29]
Since 1970, development has also been underway for the Chūō Shinkansen, a planned maglev line from Tokyo to Osaka. On 21 April 2015, a seven-car L0 series maglev trainset, planned to be used on the line, set a world speed record of 6030NaN0.[30] The line is expected to operate at 500km/h, with the estimated travel time between Tokyo and Osaka taking 67 minutes. Construction commenced in 2011 and was originally scheduled to open in 2027, though it has since been delayed to at least 2034.[31]
To enable high-speed operation, Shinkansen uses a range of advanced technology compared with conventional rail, achieving not only high speed but also a high standard of safety and comfort. Its success has influenced other railways in the world, demonstrating the importance and advantages of high-speed rail.
The majority of Shinkansen routes never intersect with slower, narrow-gauge conventional lines. Consequently, the Shinkansen is not affected by slower trains and has the capacity to operate many high-speed trains punctually. Routes are also completely grade separated from road traffic and tracks are strictly off-limits, with penalties against trespassing regulated by law. The routes make extensive use of tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles rather than around them, with a minimum curve radius of 40000NaN0, although the older Tōkaidō Shinkansen line has a minimum of 25000NaN0.[32]
While most Shinkansen routes follow this pattern, two exceptions exist. These are the mini-shinkansen lines, which run on conventional lines converted to standard gauge; and the Hokkaido Shinkansen, which shares trackage with narrow-gauge freight trains through the Seikan Tunnel.
The Shinkansen uses standard gauge in contrast to the narrow gauge of most other lines in Japan. Continuous welded rail and swingnose crossing points are employed, eliminating gaps at turnouts and crossings. Long rails are used, joined by expansion joints to minimize gauge fluctuation due to thermal elongation and shrinkage.
A combination of ballasted and slab track is used, with slab track exclusively employed on concrete bed sections such as viaducts and tunnels. Slab track is significantly more cost-effective in tunnel sections, since the lower track height reduces the cross-sectional area of the tunnel, reducing construction costs up to 30%.[33] However, the smaller diameter of Shinkansen tunnels, compared to some other high-speed lines, has resulted in the issue of tunnel boom becoming a concern for residents living close to tunnel portals.
The slab track consists of rails, fasteners and track slabs with a cement asphalt mortar. On the roadbed and in tunnels, circular upstands, measuring 400mm520mm in diameter and 200NaN high, are located at 5-metre intervals. The prefabricated upstands are made of either reinforced concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete; they prevent the track slab from moving latitudinally or longitudinally. One track slab weighs approximately 5 tons and is 2220mm2340mm wide, 4900mm4950mm long and 160mm200mm thick.[34]
The Shinkansen employs an ATC (automatic train control) system, eliminating the need for trackside signals. It uses a comprehensive system of automatic train protection. Centralized traffic control manages all train operations, and all tasks relating to train movement, track, station and schedule are networked and computerized.
The Shinkansen uses a 25 kV AC overhead power supply (20 kV AC on Mini-shinkansen lines) to overcome the limitations of the 1,500 V direct current used on the existing electrified narrow-gauge system. Power is distributed among the train's axles to reduce the heavy axle loads under single power cars. The AC frequency of the power supply for the Tokaido Shinkansen is 60 Hz.
Shinkansen trains are electric multiple units (EMUs), offering fast acceleration, deceleration and reduced damage to the track because of the use of lighter vehicles compared to locomotives or power cars. The coaches are air-sealed to ensure stable air pressure when entering tunnels at high speed.
Shinkansen trains (excluding mini-Shinkansen) are also built to a larger loading gauge compared to conventional-speed rolling stock.[35] This larger loading gauge permits wider coaches, allowing for 5-abreast seating (2+3) in Standard Class coaches, compared to the more common 4-abreast (2+2) seating usually found elsewhere. On occasions, this wider loading gauge was also used to allow 6-abreast seating (3+3) on certain trains, such as the E1 and E4 series sets. This, combined with a lack of power cars, allows for a higher passenger capacity within a shorter train length. However, since mini-Shinkansen lines are effectively track-regauged conventional lines, the conventional loading gauge for 1,067mm lines still applies on mini-Shinkansen lines.
The Shinkansen has used EMUs from the outset, with the 0 Series Shinkansen having all axles powered. Other railway manufacturers were traditionally reluctant or unable to use distributed traction configurations (Talgo, the German ICE 2 and the French (and subsequently South Korean) TGV (and KTX-I and KTX-Sancheon) use the locomotive (also known as power car) configuration with the Renfe Class 102 and continues with it for the Talgo AVRIL because it is not possible to use powered bogies as part of Talgo's bogie design, which uses a modified Jacobs bogie with a single axle instead of two and allows the wheels to rotate independently of each other; on the ICE 2, TGV and KTX it is because it easily allows for a high ride quality and less electrical equipment.[36]) In Japan, significant engineering desirability exists for the electric multiple unit configuration. A greater proportion of motored axles permits higher acceleration, so the Shinkansen does not lose as much time if stopping frequently. Shinkansen lines have more stops in proportion to their lengths compared to high-speed lines elsewhere in the world owing to the distribution of major population centers across the country.
The main Shinkansen lines are:
| Line | Start | End | Top speed | Length | Operator | Opened | Passengers (2023)[37] | Passenger km (2023) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tōkaidō | 1964 | 160,705,000 | 52,935,160,000 | |||||||
| San'yō | 1972 | 70,301,000 | 18,722,736,000 | |||||||
| Tōhoku | 1982 | 81,547,000 | 14,407,462,000 | |||||||
| Jōetsu | 1982 | 39,776,000 | 4,577,061,000 | |||||||
| Hokuriku | 1997 | 30,308,000 | 3,610,142,000 | |||||||
| Kyushu | 2004 | 16,089,000 | 1,952,403,000 | |||||||
| Nishi Kyushu | 2022 | |||||||||
| Hokkaido | 2016 | 1,401,000 | 239,125,000 | |||||||
The Tōkaidō, San'yō, and Kyūshū lines form a contiguous west- and southbound corridor from Tōkyō station. Train services operate between the Tōkaidō and San'yō lines and between the San'yō and Kyūshū lines, even though they are operated by different companies.
The Tōkaidō and Tōhoku lines are not physically connected at Tokyo Station, as they use different electrification standards, signaling systems, and earthquake-mitigation devices.
All northbound services from Tōkyō station travel along the Tōhoku line until at least Ōmiya before diverging to other Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen routes.
See main article: Mini-Shinkansen.
Instead of constructing a new right of way, two further lines known as mini-Shinkansen have been constructed by re-gauging existing sections of conventional lines. The mini-Shinkansen trains are coupled to a Tōhoku Shinkansen train between Tokyo and their start station where they couple/decouple on the platform before continuing their journey. While operating on the mini-Shinkansen lines trains have a maximum speed of .
| Line | Start | End | Conventional lines used | Top speed | Length | Operator | Opened |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yamagata | Ōu Main | 1992 | |||||
| Akita | Tazawako, Ōu Main | 1997 |
There are two standard-gauge lines that are not classified as Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen lines but are operated with Shinkansen equipment, as they use tracks leading to Shinkansen storage yards:
| Line | Start | End | Top speed | Length | Operator | Opened | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hakataminami | 1990 | ||||||
| Gala-Yuzawa | 1990 |
The following lines are under construction. These lines except Chūō Shinkansen, called or planned Shinkansen, are the Shinkansen projects designated in the decided by the government.
| Line | Start | End | Top speed | Length | Construction began | Expected opening | Operator | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chūō Phase 1 | 2014 | 2034 | ||||||
| Hokkaido Phase 2 | [40] | 2012 | JFY2038 |
| Line | Start | End | Top speed | Length | Construction proposed | Expected opening | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chūō Phase 2 | 2037 | ||||||
| Hokuriku Phase 4 | 2030 | JFY2045 | |||||
| Nishi Kyushu Phase 2 |
Many Shinkansen lines were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s but have yet to be constructed and have subsequently been shelved indefinitely.
In addition, the Basic Plan specified that the Jōetsu Shinkansen should start from Shinjuku, not Tokyo Station, which would have required building an additional 30km (20miles) of track between Shinjuku and Ōmiya. While no construction work was ever started, land along the proposed track, including an underground section leading to Shinjuku Station, remains reserved. If capacity on the Tokyo–Ōmiya section proves insufficient at some point, construction of the Shinjuku–Ōmiya link may be reconsidered.
In December 2009, then transport minister Seiji Maehara proposed a bullet train link to Haneda Airport, using an existing spur that connects the Tōkaidō Shinkansen to a train depot. JR Central called the plan "unrealistic" due to tight train schedules on the existing line, but reports said that Maehara wished to continue discussions on the idea.[44] The succeeding minister has not indicated whether this proposal remains supported. While the plan may become more feasible after the opening the Chūō Shinkansen (sometimes referred to as a bypass to the Tokaido Shinkansen) frees up capacity, construction is already underway for other rail improvements between Haneda and Tokyo station expected to be completed prior to the opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, so any potential Shinkansen service would likely offer only marginal benefit. Despite these plans ultimately not being realized (owing in part due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic), rail projects in the vicinity of Haneda Airport, including the Haneda Airport Access Line and the Tokyo Rinkai Subway Line, continue to undergo planning.[45]
The Narita Shinkansen project to connect Tokyo to Narita International Airport, initiated in the 1970s but halted in 1983 after landowner protests, has been officially cancelled and removed from the Basic Plan governing Shinkansen construction. Parts of its planned right-of-way were used by the Narita Sky Access Line which opened in 2010, and the Keiyo Line reused space originally set aside for the Narita Shinkansen terminus at Tokyo Station. Although the Sky Access Line uses standard-gauge track, it was not built to Shinkansen specifications and there are no plans to convert it into a full Shinkansen line.
Originally intended to carry passenger trains by day and freight trains by night, the Shinkansen lines carried exclusively passengers for the first five and a half decades of their operation. Light freight has been carried on some passenger services since 2019, and there are plans to expand this with freight-only trains in the future.[46] [47] [48] [49]
The system shuts down between midnight and 06:00 every day for maintenance. Japan's few remaining overnight passenger trains run on the older, narrow-gauge network that the Shinkansen parallels[50] .
There are three principal service types on the Shinkansen:
Shinkansen trains are up to sixteen cars long, and the longest are over 400m (1,300feet) from end to end. Stations are similarly long to accommodate these trains.
| Speed[56] | Train | Location | Date | Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| km/h | mph | ||||
| 2000NaN0 | Class 1000 Shinkansen | Kamonomiya test track in Odawara, part of Tōkaidō Shinkansen | 31 October 1962 | ||
| 2560NaN0 | Class 1000 Shinkansen | Kamonomiya test track | 30 March 1963 | Former world speed record for EMU trains. | |
| 2860NaN0 | Class 951 Shinkansen | San'yō Shinkansen | 24 February 1972 | Former world speed record for EMU trains. | |
| 3190NaN0 | Class 961 Shinkansen | Oyama test track, part of Tōhoku Shinkansen | 7 December 1979 | Former world speed record for EMU trains. | |
| 3260NaN0 | 300 series | Tōkaidō Shinkansen | 28 February 1991 | ||
| 3360NaN0 | 400 series | Jōetsu Shinkansen | 26 March 1991 | ||
| 3450NaN0 | 400 series | Jōetsu Shinkansen | 19 September 1991 | ||
| 3460NaN0 | 500-900 series "WIN350" | San'yō Shinkansen | 6 August 1992 | ||
| 3500NaN0 | 500–900 series "WIN350" | San'yō Shinkansen | 8 August 1992 | ||
| 3520NaN0 | Class 952/953 "STAR21" | Jōetsu Shinkansen | 30 October 1992 | ||
| 4250NaN0 | Class 952/953 "STAR21" | Jōetsu Shinkansen | 21 December 1993 | ||
| 4270NaN0 | Class 955 "300X" | Tōkaidō Shinkansen | 11 July 1996 | ||
| 4430NaN0 | Class 955 "300X" | Tōkaidō Shinkansen | 26 July 1996 | ||
The Shinkansen is very reliable thanks to several factors, including its near-total separation from slower traffic. In 2016, JR Central reported that the Shinkansen's average delay from schedule per train was 24 seconds. This includes delays due to uncontrollable causes, such as natural disasters.[57]
Over the Shinkansen's 60-plus year history, carrying over 10 billion passengers, there have been no passenger fatalities due to train accidents such as derailments or collisions,[58] despite frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Injuries and a single fatality have been caused by doors closing on passengers or their belongings; attendants are employed at platforms to prevent such accidents. There have, however, been suicides by passengers jumping both from and in front of moving trains.[59] [60]
There have been two derailments of Shinkansen trains in passenger service. The first one occurred during the Chūetsu earthquake on 23 October 2004. Eight of ten cars of the Toki No. 325 train on the Jōetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata. There were no casualties among the 154 passengers.[61]
Another derailment happened on 2 March 2013 on the Akita Shinkansen when the Komachi No. 25 train derailed in blizzard conditions in Daisen, Akita. No passengers were injured.[62]
In the event of an earthquake, an earthquake detection system can bring the train to a stop very quickly; newer trainsets are lighter and have stronger braking systems, allowing for quicker stopping. New anti-derailment devices were installed on tracks after analysis of the Jōetsu derailment.[63] [64]
Several months after the exposure of the Kobe Steel falsification scandal, which is among the suppliers of high-strength steel for Shinkansen trainsets, cracks were found upon inspection of a single bogie, and removed from service on 11 December 2017.[65]
On 23 January 2024, a massive power outage struck the Tohoku, Hokuriku and Joetsu Shinkansen lines, resulting in the cancellation of 283 trains and affecting about 120,000 passengers. JR East said that the outage was caused by a Kagayaki service train touching an overhead power cable which was left dangling after the metal rod supporting it fractured between Omiya Station in Saitama and Ueno Station in Tokyo. The incident damaged the train's pantographs and a window,[66] while two railway employees were hospitalized following an explosion that occurred at the site during repairs.[67] Most Shinkansen services were restored the following morning.[68]
In September 2024 and March 2025, two decoupling incidents took place on trains servicing the Tohoku line.[69]
On 15 August 2025, a burning smell was noticed by crew members aboard a Kodama service of the Tokaido Shinkansen. At the time, the N700S set was travelling between Maibara and Gifu-Hashima station, where the train was stopped and white smoke was found coming from underneath car number 9. The fire department was called, and identified a fire on the underside of the vehicle. There were no reported injuries, but the 250 passengers were forced to disembark and take a later Nozomi service.[70] [71]
The Shinkansen has had a significant beneficial effect on Japan's business, economy, society, environment and culture beyond mere construction and operational contributions.[72] The resultant time savings alone from switching from a conventional to a high-speed network have been estimated at 400 million hours, and the system has an economic contribution of per year. That does not include the savings from reduced reliance on imported fuel, which also has national security benefits. Shinkansen lines, particularly in the very crowded coastal Taiheiyō Belt megalopolis, met two primary goals:
However, upon the introduction of the 1973 Basic Plan the initial prudence in developing Shinkansen lines gave way to political considerations to extend the mode to far less populated regions of the country, partly to spread these benefits beyond the key centres of Kanto and Kinki. Although in some cases regional extension was frustrated by protracted land acquisition (sometimes influenced by the cancellation of the Narita Shinkansen following fierce protests by locals), over time Shinkansen lines were built to relatively sparsely populated areas with the intent to disperse the population away from the capital.
Such expansion had a significant cost. JNR, the national railway company, was already burdened with subsidizing unprofitable rural and regional railways. It then assumed Shinkansen construction debt until the government corporation eventually owed some, contributing to it being regionalised and privatized in 1987.[73] The privatized JRs eventually paid to acquire JNR's Shinkansen network.
Following privatization, the JR group of companies have continued Shinkansen network expansion to less populated areas, but with far more flexibility to spin-off unprofitable railways or cut costs than in JNR days. An important factor is the post bubble zero interest-rate policy that allows JR to borrow huge sums of capital without significant concern regarding repayment timing.
A UCLA study found that the presence of a Shinkansen line had improved housing affordability by making it more realistic for lower-income city workers to live in exurban areas much further away from the city, which tend to have cheaper housing options. That in turn helps the city to "decentralise" and reduce city property prices.[74]
Traveling by the Tokaido Shinkansen from Tokyo to Osaka produces only around 16% of the carbon dioxide of the equivalent journey by car, a saving of 15,000 tons of per year.
Noise pollution concerns have made increasing speed more difficult. In Japan, population density is high and there have been strong protests against the Shinkansen's noise pollution. Its noise is thus limited to less than 70 dB in residential areas.[75] Improvement and reduction of the pantograph, weight saving of cars, and construction of noise barriers and other measures have been implemented. Research is primarily aimed at reducing operational noise, particularly the tunnel boom phenomenon caused when trains transit tunnels at high speed.
Because of the risk of earthquakes in Japan, the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System (UrEDAS) (an earthquake warning system) was introduced in 1992. It enables automatic braking of Shinkansen trains in the event of large earthquakes.
The Tōkaidō Shinkansen often experiences heavy snow in the area around Maibara Station between December and February, requiring trains to reduce speed thus disrupting the timetable. Snow-dispersing sprinkler systems have been installed, but delays of 10–20 minutes still occur during snowy weather. Snow-related treefalls have also caused service interruptions. Along the Jōetsu Shinkansen route, snow can be very heavy, with depths of two to three metres; the line is equipped with stronger sprinklers and slab track to mitigate the snow's effects. Despite having multiple days with delays longer than 30 minutes, the Tōhoku Shinkansen still presents a slight advantage in reliability compared to air travel on days with significant snowfall.
| Tokaido | Tohoku | San'yō | Joetsu | Nagano (Hokuriku) | Kyushu | Hokkaido | Sum* | Total (excl. transfers) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FY2007 | 151.32 | 84.83 | 64.43 | 38.29 | 10.13 | 4.18 | - | 353.18 | 315.77 |
| FY2015 | 162.97 | 90.45 | 72.06 | 42.96 | 31.84 | 13.65 |
| 414.03 | 365.71 |
| FY2016 | 167.72 | 91.09 | 72.53 | 43.06 | 30.75 | 13.27 | 2.11 | 420.53 | |
| FY2017 | 170.09 | 91.98 | 74.46 | 43.80 | 31.03 | 14.24 | 2.19 | 427.78 | |
| FY2018 | 174.11 | 93.44 | 75.92 | 44.53 | 31.76 | 14.6 | 1.64 | 436.00 | |
| FY2023[77] | 160.71 | 81.55 | 70.30 | 39.78 | 30.31 | 16.09 | 1.40 | 356.45 | |
| FY2024[78] | 170.52 | 87.05 | 73.86 | 44.05 | 41.39 | 17.02 | 1.62 | 385.93 | |
Until 2011, Japan's high-speed rail system had the highest annual patronage of any system worldwide, when China's HSR network's patronage reached 1.7 billion and became the world's highest.[79] [80]
| Year | Shinkansen (see notes) | Asia (other) | Europe | World | Shinkansen share (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1964 | 11.0 | 0 | 0 | 11.0 | 100% | |
| 1980 | 1,616.3 | 0 | 0 | 1,616.3 | 100% | |
| 1985 | 2,390.3 | 0 | 45.7 | 2,436.0 | 98.1% | |
| 1990 | 3,559.1 | 0 | 129.9 | 3,689.0 | 96.5% | |
| 1995 | 5,018.0 | 0 | 461 | 5,479 | 91.6% | |
| 2000 | 6,531.7 | 0 | 1,103.5 | 7,635.1 | 85.5% | |
| 2005 | 8,088.3 | 52.2 | 2,014.6 | 10,155.1 | 79.6% | |
| 2010 | 9,651.0 | 965 | 3,177.0 | 15,417 | 70.8% | |
| 2012 | 10,344 | 2,230 | 3,715 | 16,210 | 64.5% | |
| 2014 | 11,050 | 3,910 | 4,300 | 19,260 | 57.4% |
Notes:
Cumulative ridership since October 1964 is over 5 billion passengers for the Tokaido Shinkansen Line alone and 10 billion passengers for Japan's entire shinkansen network. Nevertheless, China's share is increasing fast, as close to 9.5 billion passengers in that nation have been served by the end of 2018 and is projected to pass Japan's cumulative numbers by as early as 2020.[86]
Indicates that multiple sources are available, and report different values
| Fiscal year | 1964 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tokaido | 3.9 | 27.9 | 41.8 | 41.3 | 39.7 | 43.7 | 54.0 | 18.2† | 25.2† | 42.4† | 52.8† | 55.2† |
| Sanyo | 16.1 | - | - | - | 7.2 | 9.1 | 15.2 | 18.7 | 19.1 | |||
| Tohoku | 10.7 | 12.3 | 12.6 | 15.5 | 5.4 | 6.9 | 11.0 | 14.4 | 15.0 | |||
| Joetsu | 4.1 | 4.6 | 4.3 | 4.8 | 1.8 | 2.4 | 3.7 | 4.6 | 5.0 | |||
| Hokuriku | 0.81 | 0.75 | 3.5 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 2.9 | 3.6 | 5.3 | ||||
| Kyushu | 0.49 | 2.0 | 0.87† | 0.98 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.0 | |||||
| Hokkaido | 0.25 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.17 | 0.24 | 0.25 | ||||||
| Total | 3.9 | 27.9 | 41.8 | 72.2 | 71.2 | 77.4 | 99.3 | 34.8 | 46.4 | 76.9 | 96.3 | 99.4 |
E5 series trains, capable of up to 320abbr=onNaNabbr=on, initially limited to 3000NaN0, were introduced on the Tōhoku Shinkansen in March 2011. Operation at the maximum speed of 320abbr=onNaNabbr=on between and on this route commenced on 16 March 2013. It reduced the journey time to around 3 hours for trains from Tokyo to Shin-Aomori, a distance of 674km (419miles).
Extensive trials using the Fastech 360 test trains have shown that operation at 3600NaN0 is not feasible because of problems of noise pollution (particularly tunnel boom), overhead wire wear, and braking distances. On 30 October 2012, JR East announced that it was pursuing research and development to increase speeds to 3600NaN0 on the Tohoku Shinkansen by 2020.[92] The ALFA-X is undergoing testing.
Upon commencement of services in 2016, the maximum speed on the approximately 82km (51miles) dual gauge section of the Hokkaido Shinkansen (including through the Seikan Tunnel) was 140round=5NaNround=5, which was increased to 160round=5NaNround=5 by March 2019.[93] There are approximately 50 freight trains using the dual gauge section each day, so limiting the travel of such trains to times outside of Shinkansen services is not an option. Because of this and other weather-related factors cited by JR East and JR Hokkaido, the fastest journey time between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto is 3 hours, 57 minutes.
During the 2020–21 New Year Holiday period, certain Shinkansen services were operated at 210round=5NaNround=5 on the dual gauge section and was proposed again for the Golden Week Holiday period from 3–6 May 2021, due to fewer freight trains operating.
To achieve the full benefit of Shinkansen trains travelling on the dual gauge section at 260round=5NaNround=5 (the maximum speed proposed through the tunnel), alternatives are being considered, such as a system to automatically slow Shinkansen trains to 200round=5NaNround=5 when passing narrow-gauge trains, and/or loading freight trains onto special "Train on Train" standard-gauge trains (akin to a covered piggyback flatcar train) built to withstand the shock wave of oncoming Shinkansen trains traveling at full speed. This would enable a travel time from Tokyo to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto of 3 hours and 45 minutes, a saving of 12 minutes.
The Hokuriku Shinkansen was extended from Kanazawa to Tsuruga on 16 March 2024.[94]
There are further plans to extend the line from Tsuruga to Osaka, with the Obama-Kyoto route chosen by the government on 20 December 2016,[95] after a government committee investigated the five nominated routes.[96]
Construction of the extension beyond Tsuruga is not expected to commence before 2030, with a projected 15-year construction period. On 6 March 2017 the government committee announced the chosen route from Kyoto to Shin-Osaka is to be via Kyotanabe, with a station at on the Katamachi Line.[97] [98]
To extend the benefits of the Hokuriku Shinkansen to stations west of Tsuruga before the line to Osaka is completed, JR West was working in partnership with Talgo on the development of a Gauge Change Train (CGT) capable of operating under both the 25 kV AC electrification used on the Shinkansen and the 1.5 kV DC system employed on conventional lines. A trial of the proposed bogie was undertaken on a purpose-built 180m (590feet) gauge-changer at Tsuruga, but it was unsuccessful and the plans were abandoned.[99]
The Hokkaido Shinkansen forms an extension of the Tohoku Shinkansen north of to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station (north of the Hokkaido city of Hakodate) through the Seikan Tunnel, which was converted to dual gauge as part of the project, opening in March 2016.
JR Hokkaido is extending the Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to to open by 2038. The 211.3NaN extension will be approximately 76% in tunnels, including major tunnels such as Toshima (~32.675NaN) Oshima (~26.5NaN), Teine (~26.5NaN) and Shiribeshi (~18NaN).[100]
Although an extension from Sapporo to Asahikawa was included in the 1973 list of planned lines, at this time it is unknown whether the Hokkaido Shinkansen will be extended beyond Sapporo.
See main article: Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen.
JR Kyushu opened the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen from to (built to full Shinkansen standard) on 23 September 2022, with the existing narrow-gauge section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen proposed to be upgraded as part of this project.
This proposal initially involved introducing Gauge Change Trains (GCT) travelling from Hakata to Shin-Tosu (26.3km (16.3miles)) on the existing Kyushu Shinkansen line, then passing through a specific gauge changing (standard to narrow) section of track linking to the existing Nagasaki Main Line, along which it would travel to Hizen Yamaguchi (37.6km (23.4miles)), then onto the Sasebo Line to Takeo-Onsen (13.7km (08.5miles)), where another gauge changing section (narrow to standard) would lead onto the final Shinkansen line to Nagasaki (66km (41miles)). However, significant technical issues with the axles of the GCT resulted in its cancellation.
On 28 October 2020, JR Kyushu announced it would utilize a 6-car version of the N700S for the isolated Shinkansen section from Nagasaki, with 'cross platform' change to a relay service at Takeo Onsen station to connect to Hakata.[101] JR Kyushu also announced the service would continue to use the name 'Kamome' for the Hakata-Nagasaki service, which has been in use since 1961.[102]
The Shinkansen line shortens the distance between Hakata and Nagasaki by 6.2% (9.6km (06miles)), and while only 64% of the route is built to full Shinkansen standards, it eliminated the slowest sections of the previous narrow-gauge route.
As part of the GCT proposal, the 12.8km (08miles) section of single track between Hizen Yamaguchi and Takeo Onsen was proposed to be duplicated. However, due to the issues with the development of the GCT, the proposal did not advance.
The initial section between Nagasaki and Takeo Onsen opened on 23 September 2022.[103]
Maglev trains have been undertaking test runs on the Yamanashi test track since 1997, running at speeds of over 500km/h. As a result of this extensive testing, maglev technology is almost ready for public usage.[104] An extension of the test track from 18.4to was completed in June 2013, enabling extended high-speed running trials to commence in August 2013. This section will be incorporated into the Chūō Shinkansen which will eventually link Tokyo to Osaka. Construction of the Shinagawa to Nagoya section began in 2014, with 86% of the 286km (178miles) route to be in tunnels. Plans were approved in 2017 for the Chūō Shinkansen to begin at Tokyo Station, rather than Shinagawa Station as initially planned due to difficulties in securing land.[105]
JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034.
Following the shortest route (through the Japanese Alps), JR Central estimates that it will take 40 minutes to run from Shinagawa to Nagoya. The planned travel time from Shinagawa to Shin-Osaka is 1 hour 7 minutes. The Tokaido Shinkansen had a minimum connection time of 2 hours 19 minutes.[106]
While the government has granted approval[107] for the shortest route between Tokyo and Nagoya, some prefectural governments, particularly Nagano, lobbied to have the line routed farther north to serve the city of Chino and either Ina or . However, that would increase both the travel time (from Tokyo to Nagoya) and the cost of construction.[108] JR Central has confirmed it will construct the line through Kanagawa Prefecture, and terminate at Shinagawa Station.
The route for the Nagoya to Osaka section is also contested. It is planned to go via Nara, about 40NaN south of Kyoto. Kyoto is lobbying to have the route moved north and be largely aligned with the existing Tokaido Shinkansen, which services Kyoto and not Nara.[109]
is the name given to the routes where former narrow-gauge lines have been converted to standard gauge to allow Shinkansen trains to travel to cities without the expense of constructing full Shinkansen standard lines.
Two mini-shinkansen routes have been constructed: the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen. Shinkansen services to these lines traverse the Tohoku Shinkansen line from Tokyo before branching off to traditional main lines. On both the Yamagata/Shinjo and Akita lines, the narrow-gauge lines were regauged, resulting in the local services being operated by standard-gauge versions of suburban/interurban rolling stock. On the Akita line between Omagari and Akita, one of the two narrow-gauge lines was regauged, and a section of the remaining narrow-gauge line is dual gauge, providing opportunity for Shinkansen services to pass each other without stopping.
The maximum speed on these lines is 130km/h, however the overall travel time to/from Tokyo is improved due to the elimination of the need for passengers to change trains at Fukushima and Morioka respectively.
As the loading gauge (size of the train that can travel on a line) was not altered when the rail gauge was widened, only Shinkansen trains specially built for these routes can travel on the lines. They are the E3 and E6 series trains.
Whilst no further Mini-shinkansen routes have been proposed, it remains an option for providing Shinkansen services to cities on the narrow-gauge network.
Construction of a base tunnel on the Yamagata Shinkansen is proposed, with JR East having undertaken a survey of a planned route from Niwasaka to Sekine, just south of Yonezawa station.[110] 23.1km (14.4miles) of the proposed 24.9km (15.5miles) line would be in tunnel, mostly to the north of the existing 88km (55miles) Fukushima – Yamagata section. To be built on an improved alignment, the tunnel would lower journey times between Fukushima and Yamagata by ~10 min due to a proposed line speed of up to 200 km/h.
The tunnel would avoid the Itaya Toge pass through the Ōu Mountains west of Fukushima. Gradients range from 3.0% to 3.8% and the line reaches an altitude of 548m (1,798feet). The curvature and steep grades of the current line limit train speeds to 55km/h or less, and it is vulnerable to heavy rain and snowfall as well as high winds. Between 2011 and 2017 a total of 410 Yamagata mini-Shinkansen services were either suspended or delayed, and 40% of these incidents occurred on the line over the Itaya Toge pass.
If the base tunnel is authorised, detailed design would take five years and construction another 15 years. The cost could increase by if the tunnel were to be built with a cross-section large enough to permit the line to be upgraded to the full Shinkansen loading gauge.
See main article: Gauge Change Train.
This is the name for the concept of using a single train that is designed to travel on both narrow-gauge railway lines and the standard gauge used by Shinkansen train services in Japan. The trucks/bogies of the Gauge Change Train (GCT) allow the wheels to be unlocked from the axles, narrowed or widened as necessary, and then relocked. This allows a GCT to traverse both standard-gauge and narrow-gauge tracks without the expense of regauging lines.
Three test trains were constructed, with the second set having completed reliability trials on the Yosan Line east of Matsuyama (in Shikoku) in September 2013. The third set was undertaking gauge changing trials at Shin-Yatsushiro Station (on Kyushu), commencing in 2014 for a proposed three-year period, however testing was suspended in December 2014 after accumulating approximating 33000km (21,000miles), following the discovery of defective thrust bearing oil seals on the bogies.[111] The train was being trialled between Kumamoto, travelling on the narrow-gauge line to Shin-Yatsushiro, where a gauge changer was installed, so the GCT could be trialled on the Shinkansen line to Kagoshima. It was anticipated the train would travel approximately 600000km (400,000miles) over the three-year trial.
A new "full standard" Shinkansen line was opened in 2022 from Takeo Onsen to, with the Shin-Tosu – Takeo Onsen section of the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen remaining narrow gauge. GCTs were proposed to provide Shinkansen service from the line's opening, however with the GCT being cancelled, JR Kyushu announced it would provide an interim 'relay' service.
There are currently no further proposals for use of the GCT, nor any development work on it.
Compared with air transport, the Shinkansen has several advantages, including scheduling frequency and flexibility, punctual operation, comfortable seats, lower carbon emissions, and convenient city-centre terminals.
Shinkansen fares are generally competitive with domestic air fares. From a speed and convenience perspective, the Shinkansen's market share has surpassed that of air travel for journeys of less than 750km (470miles), while air and rail remain highly competitive with each other in the 800– range and air has a higher market share for journeys of more than 1000km (1,000miles).[112]
During snowy weather, the Shinkansen is known to face fewer delays compared to air travel due to snow. One study done in 2016 concluded that the Tohoku Shinkansen between Tokyo and Aomori had substantially fewer days with delays longer than 30 minutes compared to air travel.[113]
Railways using Shinkansen technology are not limited to those in Japan.
The 700T Series, operated by Taiwan High Speed Rail, is the first operational Shinkansen type exported outside Japan. Based on the 700 series, they were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and are operated as 12-car sets. They first entered service in January 2007, with a maximum speed of 300km/h.
A 0 Series Shinkansen front car which was used in Taiwan for testing is on display at Tainan HSR station.
The China Railway CRH2 is based on the E2-1000 series design. The trains are built by CSR Sifang Loco & Rolling stocks corporation under a license purchased in 2004 from a consortium formed of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, and Hitachi. Trial services started in January 2007.
The British Rail Class 395, operated by Southeastern, incorporates technology from the 400 Series Shinkansen.[119] Part of the Hitachi A-Train AT300 InterCity family, twenty nine sets were ordered from Hitachi for commuter services on the High Speed 1 line. The trains entered service from June 2009 and operate at a maximum speed of 140 mph (225 km/h).[120] [121]
A retired 0 Series Shinkansen front car was donated to the National Railway Museum, in 2000.[122]
See main article: Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor.
In December 2015, India and Japan signed an agreement for the construction of India's first high speed rail link connecting Mumbai to Ahmedabad, the intention being to initially operate imported E5 Series Shinkansen sets on the line. To be funded primarily through Japanese soft loans, the link was expected to cost up to US$18.6 billion and operational by 2024.[123] [124] The project has been delayed by several years, and forecast costs have risen. A tender for 24 modified E5 sets was issued in 2023, though the resulting offers were not taken up by India, who now desire E10 sets, for delivery in the 2030s.[125] [126] The Japanese Government agreed to gift one end of life E3 and E5 sets in 2025, with delivery in 2026.[127]
In 2014, it was announced that Texas Central Railway would build a ~300abbr=onNaNabbr=on long line using the N700 series rolling stock.[128] The trains are proposed to operate at over 320abbr=onNaNabbr=on.[129]
Japan will provide Shinkansen technology for a high-speed rail link between Bangkok and Chiang Mai under an agreement reached with Thailand on 27 May 2015. Total project costs are estimated in excess of 1 trillion yen ($8.1 billion). Several hurdles remain, however, including securing the funding.[130]
A private organization dedicated to aiding the Australian Government in delivering high speed rail, Consolidated Land and Rail Australia, has considered purchasing Shinkansen technology or SC Maglev rolling stock for a potential Melbourne-Canberra-Sydney-Brisbane line.[131]
In 2023, the High Speed Rail Authority was established by the Government. The Government committed AU$500 million to progress planning for a future high speed rail network – of this, AU$78.8 million was allocated to deliver the business case for the Sydney to Newcastle section, which is expected to be provided to the Government by the end of 2024.[132] [133] Japan Railways Group and Hitachi attended an industry briefing on 27 August 2024.[134]
As part of the Ireland 2040 infrastructural upgrade scheme, a high-speed rail network using Shinkansen technology is being investigated along the Cork-Dublin-Belfast axis, spanning the island of Ireland from north to south.
The U.S. Federal Railroad Administration was in talks with a number of countries concerning high-speed rail, notably Japan, France and Spain. On 16 May 2009, FRA Deputy Chief Karen Rae expressed hope that Japan would offer its technical expertise to Canada and the United States. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood indicated interest in test riding the Japanese Shinkansen in 2009.[135] [136]
On 1 June 2009, JR Central Chairman, Yoshiyuki Kasai, announced plans to export both the N700 Series Shinkansen high-speed train system and the SCMaglev to international export markets, including the United States and Canada.[137]
Japan had promoted its Shinkansen technology to the Government of Brazil for use on the once planned high-speed rail set to link Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Campinas.[138] On 14 November 2008, Japanese Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva talked about this rail project. President Lula asked a consortium of Japanese companies to participate in the bidding process. Prime Minister Aso concurred on the bilateral cooperation to improve rail infrastructure in Brazil, including the Rio–São Paulo–Campinas high-speed rail line.[139] The Japanese consortium included the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Mitsui & Co., Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Toshiba.[140] [141] Nothing was implemented.
Vietnam Railways was considering the use of Shinkansen technology for high-speed rail between the capital Hanoi and the southern commercial hub of Ho Chi Minh City, according to the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, citing an interview with Chief Executive Officer Nguyen Huu Bang. The Vietnamese government had already given basic approval for the Shinkansen system, although it still requires financing and formal consent from the prime minister. Vietnam rejected a funding proposal in 2010, so funding for the $56 billion project is uncertain. Hanoi was exploring additional Japanese funding Official Development Assistance as well as funds from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. The 1560km (970miles) line would replace the current colonial-era rail line. Vietnam hoped to launch high-speed trains by 2020 and planned to start by building three sections, including a stretch between the central coastal cities of Da Nang and Huế, seen as potentially most profitable. Vietnam Railways had sent engineers to Central Japan Railway Company for technical training.[142] [143]
