Boxer movement
| Boxers | |
|---|---|
| 義和拳 | |
 A Boxer war flag, inspired by the Black Flag Army | |
| Other name |
|
Commander | |
| Dates active | 1890s–September 1901 |
| Country |  China |
| Ideology | |
| Size | 50,000–100,000 |
| Wars | Boxer Rebellion |
The Boxers, officially known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (among other names), were a Chinese secret society and resistance movement based in Northern China that carried out the Boxer Rebellion, or Boxer Uprising from 1899 to 1901.
The movement was made up of independent local village groups, many of which kept their membership secret, making the total number of participants difficult to estimate, but it may have included as many as 100,000. They originally attacked the Qing government, but soon called upon it to resist foreign influence.
In the summer of 1900, groups of Boxer fighters destroyed foreign owned property, such as railroads and telegraphs, and murdered Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians. They then supported the Empress Dowager in resisting the resulting foreign invasion, which all but destroyed the group and ended the Rebellion, though some members continued in other groups across China.
Names
[edit]In the English-speaking world, the group came to be known as the "Boxers", due to its members' practice of Chinese martial arts, at the time called "Chinese boxing".[2][3] The term was popularized through English-language media of the time.[4]: 104 Though the group had existed since the mid-1880s, it was first reported externally as the "National Righteousness Group" (義民會; 义民会; Yìmínhuì; I4-min2-hui4) in an 1899 Qing report intent on solving disturbances in the Shandong and Zhili Provinces.[5] This is later clarified in a follow-up report to have been a mistake, and that the actual name is in fact "League of Harmony and Justice" (義和團; 义和团; Yìhétuán; I4-ho2-t'uan2), alternatively translated as "Militia United in Righteousness".
During 1898, the group was known as the Plum Blossom Fists (梅花拳; Méihuāquán; Mei2-hua1-ch'üan2), though this name would not be used into 1899 and after.[6]
In more recent English publications, the name of the group from 1899, variously translated as "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" or "Fists of Harmony and Justice" (義和拳; 义和拳; Yìhéquán; I4-ho2-ch'üan2),[7] tends to be used over the yìhétuán-based name. The group is also sometimes known in English by any one of its Chinese names, with more recent publications tending to use Pinyin, and older publications using Wade–Giles or other systems.[8]
Origins
[edit]
During the rule of the Qing dynasty, non-state secret societies, such as the Big Swords Society or the White Lotus Society, often exerted significant influence and force. These groups often took advantage, through armed members, of the lack of imperial order in many areas of China, along with rampant corruption that enabled the societies to function even in well-controlled areas.
Yi-he boxing, as it was later practised by the Fists of Harmony and Justice, long predated the movement. In 1779, the Qing government already investigated rumours according to which a man named Yang practised this martial arts style in Guan County, Shandong, though state authorities were unable to confirm this at the time.[9]
Though the Boxer movement originated in Shandong and Hebei intent on lessening governmental influence throughout China by means of violence and its goals quickly expanded to attempt to eliminate all foreign influence, which was considered at the time to have already penetrated the imperial government. The group at this time was deeply associated with other secret societies in their efforts to eliminate Christians, as can be seen in the 4 July 1896 with attacks on German missionaries in the regions of Western Shandong that later were controlled by the Boxers.[6]
During 1898, the previously separate Boxer groups in Shandong and Hebei would fall under much more direct leadership, with the establishment of structure into the group in the form of ranks. This would also involve the renaming of the group into the "Plum Blossom Fists". However, the name-change was not used past 1898, with the name "Fists of Harmony and Justice" used instead.[6]
On 23 May 1898, an investigation was made by the Guangxu Emperor into disturbances in the Shandong-Zhili border region by a supposed "National Righteousness Group", with the possibility of 10,000 Boxer soldiers being under group command in this region. A representative of the monarchy, Zhang Rumei, would be sent along with an army to put down any unrest in the region. The result of the meeting was not negative, with Zhang reporting that there was no trouble in the region, along with more accurate reports on the group's smaller numbers.
A series of natural disasters, famine, and growing anti-foreign sentiment resulted in an environment in which the itinerant martial arts masters at the center of the movement found receptive audiences.[4]: 104 The Yellow River had flooded in 1898 and drought followed over the course of 1898–1900.[4]: 104 This made entire communities in Shandong destitute.[4]: 104 Simultaneously, foreign missionaries backed by foreign diplomatic and military power were increasingly active, with religious conversions exacerbating existing divisions in rural society and creating new ones, particularly as Chinese Christians leveraged their connections to foreign missionaries to obtain advantages in litigation and other disputes.[4]: 104 Some Chinese linked the two phenomena, contending that the drought was influenced by Chinese Christians' refusal to worship local deities and Christian church placement and design violating principles of geomancy (feng shui).[4]: 104 The movement was primarily composed of peasants, to which were added idle youth, ruined artisans, and laid-off workers.[10] Some Boxer recruits were disbanded imperial soldiers and local militiamen.[11]
Conflict
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