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Polytheism

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Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one deity, a type of theism; it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in only one deity that is, in most cases, transcendent.[1][2][3] The term was coined by Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria as a compound of the Greek words πολύ (lit: "many") and θεός (lit: "god") to argue with the Greeks, though was in modern times re-popularised by Jean Bodin in the 16th century and then by Samuel Purchas in 1614.[4]

Oftentimes, polytheistic religions reflect belief in a pantheon of deities that may themselves have religious sects and rituals dedicated to them. These deities can also be representations of natural forces or ancestral principles; they can be viewed either as autonomous, or as emanations of a greater deity or transcendental absolute being (such as in monistic theology), in either case manifesting immanently in nature (such as in panentheistic and pantheistic theology).[5]

Polytheists do not exclusively worship all deities equally. Another position, identified as monolatry, kathenotheism, or henotheism (though the last one is controversial), recognises the existence of multiple deities while focusing worship to one deity or a specific group of deities, perhaps at certain times or in specific contexts.[6] Moreover, according to Oxford Reference, "it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion is really so, or whether the apparent different objects of worship are to be thought of as manifestations [of a singular divinity]."[1]

Polytheism was common in the time and place of the Abrahamic religions, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Quran, central to Islam, quite explicitly denounces polytheism, though there is certainly evidence to suggest that the Hebrew Bible, which Judaism and Christianity are established upon, may have originally been polytheistic to some extent.[citation needed]

Otherwise, there are still some dualistic[relevant?] aspects, such as Satan[clarification needed], and polytheistic aspects, such as saints.[clarification needed] Saint Brigid is in fact Brigit, the main goddess of Celtic Ireland.[citation needed] It is well documented[by whom?] throughout history, from prehistory and the earliest records of ancient Egyptian religion and ancient Mesopotamian religion to the religions prevalent during classical antiquity, such as ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and in ethnic religions such as Germanic, Slavic, and Baltic paganism and Native American religions.

Notable polytheistic religions practiced today include Taoism, Chinese folk religion, Shinto, Santería, most Traditional African religions,[7] and various neopagan faiths such as Wicca and Hellenism.

Hinduism, while popularly held as polytheistic by many scholars, cannot be exclusively categorised as such. Some Hindus consider their beliefs to be pantheistic, panentheistic, henotheistic, monotheistic or monistic. There is no single book representative of a standardised "Hindu" belief; "Hinduism" is better described as an umbrella term for a collection of ideologies found within several Hindu texts.

Vedanta, the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of pantheism/panentheism and polytheism, holding that Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping the innumerable deities that represent the Supreme Absolute Truth. Hindus who practice Bhakti ultimately believe in one deity, known by many titles, such as Paramatman, Parabrahman, Bhagavan, Ishvara, and so on, who transcends all categories (e.g. both of form and formless), with those unaware of these concepts worshipping their own deities each as the ultimate god.

Soft Polytheism vs. Hard Polytheism

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A major division in modern polytheistic practices is between so-called "soft" polytheism and "hard" polytheism.[8][9]

"Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychological archetypes, personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through the lenses of different cultures (e.g. Odin, Zeus, and Indra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known as omnitheism.[10] In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures.[9]

"Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may also reject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether.[9]

Gods and Divinity

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The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories, in many ways similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights, and others. In some cases, these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

Types of deities

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Types of deities often found in polytheism may include:

Religion and Mythology

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In the Classical era, 4th century CE Neoplatonist Sallustius categorized mythology into five types:[11]

  1. Theological: myths that contemplate the essence of the gods, such as Cronus swallowing his children, which Sallustius regarded as expressing in allegory the essence of divinity
  2. Physical: expressing the activities of gods in the world
  3. Psychological: myths as allegories of the activities of the soul itself or the soul's acts of thought
  4. Material: regarding material objects as gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, the ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon
  5. Mixed

The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology",[12][unreliable source?] though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished[according to whom?] from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating the distinction within the religion between belief and practice.[citation needed] Scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, and Douglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancient Proto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalist numenistic religion.[citation needed] An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēws, which is attested in several Indo-European religious systems.

Ancient and historical religions

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Egyptian gods in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History

Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods, the Egyptian gods, the pantheon attested in