| Akan | |
| Also Known As: | Twi-Fante |
| Nativename: | Akan: Ákán |
| States: | Ghana |
| Ethnicity: | Akan |
| Speakers: | L1 million |
| Date: | 2013 |
| Ref: | e27 |
| Speakers2: | L2 million (no date) |
| Speakers Label: | Speakers |
| Familycolor: | Niger-Congo |
| Fam2: | Atlantic–Congo |
| Fam3: | Volta–Congo |
| Fam4: | Kwa |
| Fam5: | Potou–Tano |
| Fam6: | Tano |
| Fam7: | Central Tano |
| Dia1: | Asante |
| Dia2: | Akuapem |
| Dia3: | Fante |
| Dia4: | Bono |
| Dia5: | Wasa |
| Nation: | None Government-sponsored language of  Ghana |
| Agency: | Akan Orthography Committee |
| Script: | Latin |
| Iso1: | ak |
| Iso2: | aka |
| Iso3: | aka |
| Lc1: | twi |
| Ld1: | Twi |
| Lc2: | fat |
| Ld2: | Fanti |
| Lc3: | abr |
| Ld3: | Abron |
| Lc4: | wss |
| Ld4: | Wasa |
| Glotto: | akan1251 |
| Glottoname: | Akanic |
| Notice: | IPA |
Akan, or Twi-Fante,[1] is the most widely-spoken language of Ghana, and the principal native language of the Akan people, spoken over much of the southern half of Ghana.[2] About 80% of Ghana's population speak Akan as a first or second language, and about 44% of Ghanaians are native speakers.[3] The Bono dialect is also spoken across the border in Ivory Coast.
Three dialects were developed as literary standards with distinct orthographies: Asante and Akuapem, collectively known as Twi, and Fante.[4] Despite being mutually intelligible, they were inaccessible in written form to speakers of the other standards until the Akan Orthography Committee (AOC)'s development of a common Akan orthography in 1978, based mainly on Akuapem dialect.[5] As the first Akan variety to be used for Bible translation, Akuapem had become the prestige dialect.[6]
With the Atlantic slave trade, Akan languages were introduced to the Caribbean and South America, notably in Suriname and Jamaica, where it heavily influenced the languages spoken by the Ndyuka and the Jamaican Maroons, also known as the Coromantee. The cultures of the descendants of escaped slaves in the interior of Suriname and the Maroons in Jamaica still retain Akan influences, including the Akan naming practice of naming children after the day of the week on which they are born, e.g. Akwasi/Kwasi for a boy or Akosua for a girl born on a Sunday. In Jamaica and Suriname, the Anansi spider stories are still well-known.[7]
Originally, the language was known by local names rather than a single unifying term. Inland Akan groups referred to it as 'Twi' (;[8] [9] pronounced as /ak/), while coastal Akan groups referred to it as 'Fante.[10] After independence, the national language commission adopted 'Akan', a name that had been used for all the languages spoken by the Akan people, which included Twi-Fante and the Bia languages, as the name for only Twi-Fante specifically. The broader scope was renamed the Central Tano languages to avoid confusion. However, many sources still refer to the Central Tano languages as 'Akan'.
The largest Akan migration was to Ghana in successive waves between the 11th and 18th centuries. Smaller numbers migrated to the eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire and parts of Togo.[11] Within Ghana, they expanded from the north to occupy the southern forest and coastal areas during the 13th century. The Akans have a strong oral history tradition of their past and are also known in for symbolic artifacts of wood, metal and terracotta. Their cultural ideas are expressed in stories and proverbs as well as in designs such as symbols used in carvings and on clothes. The rich Akan culture and history in Ghana are areas of research for many disciplines, such as folklore, literary studies, linguistics, anthropology, and history.
Akan is a dialect continuum that is closely related to the Bia languages, the other Central Tano languages spoken by the Akan people. The relationships of the major Akan dialects are as follows:
Brong and Wasa have limited mutual intelligibility with each other, and so are separate languages by that standard. Neighboring Brong and Asante are mutually intelligible, though geographically more distant Brong and Fante are less so.Indeed, 'a Fante-speaker will be right in looking on Bron [Bono] as a different language.'
The Akan dialects contain extensive palatalization, vowel harmony, and tone terracing.
Before front vowels, all Asante consonants are palatalized (or labio-palatalized), and the stops are to some extent affricated. The allophones of pronounced as //n// are quite complex. In the table below, palatalized allophones which involve more than minor phonetic palatalization are specified, in the context of the vowel pronounced as //i//. These sounds do occur before other vowels, such as pronounced as //a//, though in most cases not commonly.
In Asante, pronounced as //ɡu// followed by a vowel is pronounced pronounced as //ɡʷ//, but in Akuapem it remains pronounced as //ɡu//. The sequence pronounced as //nh// is pronounced pronounced as /[ŋŋ̊]/.
A word final pronounced as //k// can be heard as a glottal stop pronounced as /[ʔ]/. There is also a nasalization of pronounced as //h// and of pronounced as //j w// as pronounced as /[h̃]/ and pronounced as /[j̃ w̃]/, when occurring before nasal vowels.
The transcriptions in the tables below are in the order /phonemic/, [phonetic]. Note that orthographic is ambiguous; in textbooks, = pronounced as //ɡ// may be distinguished from pronounced as //dw// with a diacritic: pronounced as /d̩w/. Likewise, velar (pronounced as /ŋw/) may be transcribed pronounced as /n̩w/. Orthographic is palatalized pronounced as /[ɲᶣ]/.
| Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Labialized | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | plain | /pronounced as /ink// | pronounced as /link/ | /nʷ/ | ||
| geminated | /nː/ | /nːʷ/ | ||||
| Stop | voiceless | /pronounced as /link// | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | /kʷ/ | |
| voiced | /pronounced as /ink// | /pronounced as /link// | pronounced as /link/ | /ɡʷ/ | ||
| Fricative | /pronounced as /ink// | /pronounced as /ink// | pronounced as /link/ | /hʷ/ | ||
| Trill | pronounced as /link/ | |||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /link/ | /pronounced as /link// | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Labialized | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phoneme | Allophones | Phoneme | Allophones | Phoneme | Allophones | ||||
| Nasal | plain | /pronounced as /ink// | pronounced as /link/ | [{{IPA link|n}}~{{IPAlink|ŋ}}, {{IPAlink|ɲ}}, ɲĩ] | /nʷ/ | [ŋʷ, ɲᶣ] | |||
| geminated | /nː/ | [ŋː, ɲːĩ] | /nːʷ/ | [ɲːᶣ] | |||||
| Stop | voiceless | /pronounced as /link// | pronounced as /link/ | [{{IPAlink|t}}] | pronounced as /link/ | [{{IPAlink|k}}, tɕ~cç] | /kʷ/ | [kʷ, tɕᶣ] | |
| voiced | /pronounced as /ink// | /pronounced as /link// | pronounced as /link/ | [{{IPA link|ɡ}}, dʑ~ɟʝ] | /ɡʷ/ | [ɡʷ, dʑᶣ] | |||
| Fricative | /pronounced as /ink// | /pronounced as /ink// | pronounced as /link/ | [h, ɕ] | /hʷ/ | [hʷ, ɕᶣ] | |||
| Trill | pronounced as /link/ | [{{IPAlink|ɾ}}, {{IPAlink|r}}, {{IPAlink|ɽ}}] | |||||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /link/ | /pronounced as /link// | pronounced as /link/ | [w, ɥ] | |||||
The Akan dialects have fourteen to fifteen vowels: four to five "tense" vowels (advanced tongue root; +ATR or -RTR), five "lax" vowels (retracted tongue root, +RTR or -ATR), which are not entirely contrastively represented by the seven-vowel orthography, and five nasal vowels, which are not represented at all. All fourteen were distinguished in the Gold Coast alphabet of the colonial era. A tongue-root distinction in orthographic a is only found in some subdialects of Fante, but not in the literary form; in Asante and Akuapem there are harmonic allophones of pronounced as //a//, but neither is ATR. The two vowels written e (pronounced as //e// and pronounced as //i̙//) and o (pronounced as //o// and pronounced as //u̙//) are often not distinguished in pronunciation.
| Front | Central | Back | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -RTR | +RTR | -RTR | +RTR | -RTR | +RTR | ||
| Close | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| Mid | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| Open | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |||||
| Orthog. | -RTR | +RTR | |
|---|---|---|---|
| i | pronounced as //i// pronounced as /[i]/ | ||
| e | pronounced as //e// pronounced as /[e]/ | pronounced as //i̙// pronounced as /[ɪ~e]/ | |
| ɛ | pronounced as //e̙// pronounced as /[ɛ]/ | ||
| a | pronounced as //a// pronounced as /[æ~ɐ~ə]/ | pronounced as //a̙// pronounced as /[a]/ | |
| ɔ | pronounced as //o̙// pronounced as /[ɔ]/ | ||
| o | pronounced as //o// pronounced as /[o]/ | pronounced as //u̙// pronounced as /[ʊ~o]/ | |
| u | pronounced as //u// pronounced as /[u]/ |
Akan vowels engage in a form of vowel harmony with the root of the tongue.
Akan has three phonemic tones, high (/H/), mid (/M/), and low (/L/). Initial syllable may only be high or low.
The phonetic pitch of the three tones depends on their environment, often being lowered after other tones, producing a steady decline known as tone terracing.
/H/ tones have the same pitch as a preceding /H/ or /M/ tone within the same tonic phrase, whereas /M/ tones have a lower pitch. That is, the sequences /HH/ and /MH/ have a level pitch, whereas the sequences /HM/ and /MM/ have a falling pitch. /H/ is lowered (downstepped) after a /L/.
/L/ is the default tone, which emerges in situations such as reduplicated prefixes. It is always at bottom of the speaker's pitch range, except in the sequence /HLH/, in which case it is raised in pitch but the final /H/ is still lowered. Thus /HMH/ and /HLH/ are pronounced with distinct but very similar pitches.
After the first "prominent" syllable of a clause, usually the first high tone, there is a downstep. This syllable is usually stressed.
Akan historically employed a noun class system similar to that of Bantu languages. Although this system is now largely defunct, remnants of it persist in modern Akan plural formation, particularly through prefixes and suffixes. The current pluralisation system blends fossilised class prefixes with newer morphological strategies, especially for human nouns. Notably, human nouns have preserved more elements of the old system than non-human nouns and can employ multiple plural-marking strategies simultaneously.
Modern Akan employs several strategies for plural formation, representing a transition from its historical purely prefixal system to a mixed system using both prefixes and suffixes. These strategies vary based on semantic categories, with human nouns showing particularly complex patterns.
Many Akan nouns form their plurals through the addition or replacement of nasal prefixes (Akan: m-, Akan: n-), reflecting remnants of the old noun class system.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Akan: abɔfra "child" | Akan: mmɔfra "children" | |
| Akan: aboa "animal" | Akan: mmoa "animals" | |
| Akan: abusua "family" | Akan: mmusua "families" | |
| Akan: abirekyie "goat" | Akan: mmirekyie "goats" | |
| Akan: adaka "box" | Akan: nnaka "boxes" | |
| Akan: adanko "rabbit" | Akan: nnanko "rabbits" | |
| Akan: aduro "medicine" | Akan: nnuro "medicines" | |
| Akan: kraman "dog" | Akan: nkraman "dogs" | |
| Akan: kanea "light", "lamp" | Akan: nkanea "lights", "lamps" | |
| Akan: safoa "key" | Akan: nsafoa "keys" |
In this process, the original class prefix (typically Akan: a-) is replaced by a homorganic nasal prefix that assimilates to the initial consonant of the root word. For example, initial Akan: ab- becomes Akan: mm- and Akan: ad- becomes Akan: nn- in plural forms.
A relatively newer morphological development involves using plural suffixes, primarily for human and agentive nouns. This development is particularly significant as it shows how Akan is evolving from its historical prefix-based system. Human nouns demonstrate the most complex plural marking, often combining both old prefixal and new suffixal strategies — a pattern that highlights their special status in the language's grammatical system.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Akan: agya "father" | Akan: agyanom "fathers" | |
| Akan: nana "grandparent"/"grandchild" | Akan: nananom "grandparents"/"grandchildren" | |
| Akan: nua "sibling" | Akan: nuanom "siblings" | |
| Akan: yere "wife" | Akan: yerenom "wives" |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Akan: ɔkyerɛkyerɛni "teacher" | Akan: akyerɛkyerɛfo "teachers" | |
| Akan: odiyifo "prophet" | Akan: adiyifo "prophets" | |
| Akan: ɔsɔfo "priest" | Akan: asɔfo "priests" | |
| Akan: ɔbayifo "witch" | Akan: abayifo "witches" |
In some cases, both a prefix and a suffix are used for pluralisation, especially with human nouns (e.g., Akan: onua → Akan: enuanom). This double marking represents a unique development in Akan's plural system, where human nouns have not only preserved elements of the old class system but have also incorporated new morphological strategies, resulting in a more complex marking pattern than non-human nouns.
Certain Akan nouns remain unchanged in the plural, representing another way the historical noun class system has been simplified. While human nouns have developed complex plural marking strategies, these invariant nouns — including mass nouns and inherently plural items — have moved in the opposite direction by eliminating plural marking entirely.
| Singular / Plural | |
|---|---|
| Akan: sika "money" | |
| Akan: ani "eye"/"eyes" | |
| Akan: nkyene "salt"/"salts" | |
| Akan: nsuo "water"/"waters" |
Akan originally featured a more extensive system of noun classes marked by singular/plural prefixes. These may be reconstructed as follows:
| Singular | Plural | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Class | Prefix | Typical domain | Class | Prefix |
| 1 | Akan: o-/Akan: ɔ- | Humans | 5 | Akan: n- |
| 2 | Akan: a-/Akan: e- | Humans, animals, instruments | 6 | Akan: a-/Akan: e- |
| 3 | Akan: i-/Akan: e- | Inanimates | ||
| 4 | Akan: ɛ- | |||
Over time, this class system has undergone morphological decay. Modern Akan lacks productive class agreement between nouns and adjectives or verbs, and many prefixes have become fossilised elements perceived as part of the noun stem.
| Uppercase | A | B | D | E | Ɛ | F | G | H | I | K | L | M | N | O | Ɔ | P | R | S | T | U | W | Y | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lowercase | a | b | d | e | ɛ | f | g | h | i | k | l | m | n | o | ɔ | p | r | s | t | u | w | y |
The letters C, J, Q, V, X and Z are also used, but only in loanwords.
The Akan languages have a rich literature in proverbs, folktales, and traditional drama, as well as a new literature in dramas, short stories, and novels.[12] This literature began to be documented in written form in the late 1800s.[13] Later, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia collected a number of proverbs and folktales, including Funeral Dirges of the Akan People (1969), Folk Songs of Ghana (1963), and Akan Poetry (1958). Some of the important authors in the language are A. A. Opoku (dramatist), E. J. Osew (dramatist), K. E. Owusu (novelist), and R. A. Tabi (dramatist and novelist). The Bureau of Ghana Languages has been unable to continue printing novels in the language, and the following are out of print: Obreguo, Okrabiri, Afrakoma, Obeede, Fia Tsatsala, and Ku Di Fo Nanawu.[14]
In 1978 the AOC established a common orthography for all of Akan, which is used as the medium of instruction in primary school.[15] [16] The Akan language is recognized for literacy, from at least the lower primary level (primary 1–3).
Akan languages are studied at several major universities in the United States, including Ohio University, Ohio State University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Harvard University, Boston University, Indiana University, University of Michigan, and The University of Florida. Akan has been a regular African language of study in the annual Summer Cooperative African Languages Institute (SCALI) program. The Akan language is studied in these universities as a bachelor or masters program.
| English | Akan | |
|---|---|---|
| Welcome | Akan: Akwaaba | |
| Yes | Akan: Aane (Asante) Akan: Nyew (Fante) Akan: Yiw (Akuapem) | |
| Okay/Alright | Akan: Yoo | |
| No/Nope | Akan: Oho/Akan: Anhã (Fante) Akan: Daabi (Asante) | |
| Good night | Akan: Da yie (Asante) literally "sleep well" | |
| I'm going to sleep | Akan: Me rekɔ da (Fante) | |
| How's it going?/How are you? | Akan: Ɛte sɛn? (Asante) could also be used in the non-literal sense as "hello" | |
| Thank you | Akan: Medaase | |
| Please/Excuse me/I beg your pardon | Akan: Mepa wo kyɛw | |
| Song(s)/Music | Akan: Ndwom (Fante) Akan: Nnwom (Asante) | |
| What is your name? | Akan: Wo din de sɛn?/Akan: Yɛfrɛ wo sɛn? (Asante) Akan: Wo dzin dze dεn? (Fante) | |
| My name is.../I'm called... | Akan: Me dzin dze.../Akan: Wɔfrɛ me... (Fante) | |
| How old is he/she? | Akan: Woedzi mfe ahen? (Fante) | |
| How old are you? | Akan: Edzi mfe ahen (Fante) | |
| Where is it? | Akan: Ɔwɔ hen? | |
| I am going/I am taking my leave | Akan: Me rekɔ | |
| Good | Akan: Mbo (Fante) Akan: Mmo (Asante) | |
| Leave | Akan: Jo (Fante) Akan: Kɔ (Asante) | |
| Well done | Akan: Ayɛ adze (Fante) | |
| Stop | Akan: Gyae | |
| Sleep | Akan: Da | |
| Come | Akan: Bra | |
| Come here | Akan: Bra ha | |
| Come and eat | Akan: Bɛ didi |
| English | Akan | |
|---|---|---|
| Home | Akan: Fie | |
| School | Akan: Sukuu | |
| Church | Akan: Asɔre | |
| Market | Akan: Dwaaso | |
| University/Tertiary institution | Akan: Sukuupon | |
| Hospital | Akan: Ayaresabea |
The Akan peoples use a common Akan (Ghana) naming system of giving the first name to a child, based on the day of the week that the child was born. Almost all the tribes and clans in Ghana have a similar custom.
| Day | Male name | Female name | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | Akan | |||
| Monday | Twi: Dwoada | Twi: Kwadwo, Kojo | Twi: Adwoa | |
| Tuesday | Twi: Benada | Twi: Kwabena, Kobina | Twi: Abena | |
| Wednesday | Twi: Wukuada | Twi: Kweku, Kwaku | Twi: Akua | |
| Thursday | Twi: Yawoada | Twi: Yaw, Kwaw | Twi: Yaa | |
| Friday | Twi: Fiada | Twi: Kofi | Twi: Afia/Afua | |
| Saturday | Twi: Memeneda | Twi: Kwame | Twi: Ama | |
| Sunday | Twi: Kwasiada | Twi: Akwasi, Kwasi, Kwesi | Twi: Asi, Akosua, Esi |
