Shia Islam
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Shia Islam[a] is the second-largest branch of Islam. It is rooted in the belief that the Islamic prophet Muhammad explicitly designated his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–661) as his rightful political successor (caliph) and the divinely guided spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). Shia Muslims maintain that Ali's divine right to leadership was unjustly usurped at the meeting of Saqifa, where certain companions of Muhammad apparently acted against the Prophet's mandate to appoint Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as caliph. While Sunni Muslims accept the rule of Abu Bakr, Umar (r. 634–644), and Uthman (r. 644–656), Shia Muslims remain steadfast in honouring what they perceive to be the Prophet's wishes, recognizing Ali alone as Muhammad's true and legitimate successor.
Shia Muslims believe the imamate continued rightfully through Ali's sons, Hasan and Husayn, after whom various Shia branches emerged to follow the lines of the true imams. Central to Shia devotion is a profound reverence for the ahl al-bayt, the purified family of Muhammad, who are recognized as the infallible inheritors of his divinely granted knowledge and spiritual authority. Sacred Shia holy sites include the shrine of Ali in Najaf, the shrine of Husayn in Karbala, and other mausoleums of the revered ahl al-bayt.
Shia Muslims constitute an estimated 10–13%[1] of the world's Muslim population, numbering approximately 200–260 million faithful followers as of 2026. The three principal Shia branches are Twelverism, Isma'ilism, and Zaydism. Shia Muslims form a majority in Iran, Iraq, and Azerbaijan while making up almost half of the Muslim population of Lebanon and Bahrain.[2] Substantial Shia communities also exist in Turkey, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, and the Indian subcontinent. Iran remains the only country in the world where Shia Islam officially serves as the foundation of both its legal framework and system of governance.[3]
Etymology
The word Shia (or Shīʿa; /ˈʃiːə/; Arabic: شِّيْعَة) is derived from shīʿatu ʿAlī (شِّيْعَة عَلِيّ, 'followers of Ali').[4][5][6] An adherent is called a Shi'i (Shīʿī; Arabic: شيعيّ; pl. shīʿiyyūn; Arabic: شيعيون). In Arabic, "Shīʿa" means followers and supporters; the term derives from al-shiyāʿ and al-mushāyaʿa, which convey the meanings of following, supporting, and obedience.[citation needed] Shia Islam is also referred to in English as Shiism (or Shīʿism) (/ˈʃiːɪz(ə)m/), and Shia Muslims as Shiites (or Shīʿites) (/ˈʃiːaɪt/).[7]
The term Shia was first used during Muhammad's lifetime.[8][failed verification] At present, the word refers to Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors.[9]
Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who, at the time of Muhammad and after him, regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph.[9][10] Al-Shahrastani explains that the term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī was designated as the heir, Imam, and caliph by Muhammad,[9][11] and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants.[9][12] For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam. Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets, as the Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 illustrate: "Indeed, Allah chose Adam, Noah, the family of Abraham, and the family of 'Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing."[13]
History
The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī,[14] and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra (7th century CE).[15] The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century. The 10th century has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".[16]
Origins
The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and Fatima's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement composed of those fiercely loyal to him during the First Fitna (656–661). Shia doctrine is founded on the understanding that ʿAlī was uniquely designated to lead the Muslim community after Muhammad's death in 632. While the origins of Shia Islam remain a subject of scholarly debate, many Western historians have attempted to characterize early Shia Islam merely as a political faction rather than a religious movement,[17][18] while others recognize this framework as an anachronistic imposition of the Western separation of religion and politics.[19]
Shia Muslims point to Muhammad's explicit designation of ʿAlī as his successor during a major sermon at Ghadir Khumm, in which he declared: "Anyone who has me as his mawla, has ʿAlī as his mawla".[20][9][21][22][23] Many versions of the sermon include the invocation: "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy".[24] The interpretation of this prominent proclamation is central to the Sunni–Shia divide: while Sunni scholars tend to interpret it as a general affirmation of ʿAlī's merit, Shia Muslims maintain it to be a clear and unambiguous designation of ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor.[9][25][26][27] Shia sources further record that those present at Ghadir Khumm immediately congratulated ʿAlī, acclaiming him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers").[24]
When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī and Muhammad's closest relatives remained occupied with the solemn duty of his funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah convened a separate meeting with the leaders of Medina at Saqifa and secured the election of Abū Bakr as the first of the rāshidūn caliphs. While Sunni Muslims maintain that this election was politically legitimate, the process had no clear basis or precedent set by Muhammad, and ʿAlī's partisans viewed it as a direct violation of the Prophet's designation at Ghadir Khumm. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, followed by ʿUmar (634–644) and ʿUthmān (644–656).[20]
Following the assassination of ʿUthmān in 656, the Muslims of Medina finally turned to ʿAlī as the fourth caliph,[28] and he established his capital in Kufa.[4] ʿAlī's subsequent rule over the early Islamic empire (656–661) was marked by entrenched opposition from rival factions.[20] The resulting conflict, known as the First Fitna, became the first major civil war within the Muslim community, encompassing a series of revolts against ʿAlī by groups that had initially affirmed the legitimacy of his caliphate before ultimately turning against him.[28]
The conflict began with the Battle of the Camel in 656, in which ʿAlī's forces successfully prevailed against the coalition of Aisha, Ṭalḥah, and al-Zubayr. At the Battle of Siffin in 657, ʿAlī's campaign to subdue Muʿāwiyah, the governor of Damascus, was frustrated by a forced arbitration that proved structurally disadvantageous to ʿAlī.[20] He subsequently withdrew to Kufa, where he decisively defeated the