Sufism
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Sufism or Sufi Islam[1][2] (Arabic: التصوف, romanized: al-Taṣawwuf) is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam that is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification, spirituality, ritualism, and asceticism.[3]
Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis" (from صُوفِيّ, ṣūfīy),[4] and historically typically belonged to "orders" known as tariqa (pl. turuq)—congregations formed around a grand wali (saint) who would be the last in a chain of successive teachers linking back to Muhammad, with the goal of undergoing tazkiyah (self-purification) and the hope of reaching the spiritual station of ihsan.[5][6][7] The ultimate aim of Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by endeavouring to return to their original state of purity and natural disposition, known as fitra.[8]
It is assumed that Sufism emerged in the early period of Islamic history under the spiritual leadership of the legendary Hasan al-Basri as an ascetic reaction against the expansion and luxury of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750). Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism, they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology.[9] Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, remain adherents of Sunni Islam, some strands of Sufi thought transferred over to the ambits of Shia Islam during the late Middle Ages.[10] This particularly happened after the Safavid conversion of Iran under the concept of irfan.[10] Important foci of Sufi worship include dhikr, the practice of the remembrance of God. Sufis also played an important role in the spread of Islam through their missionary and educational activities.[9]
Sufism has been variously defined as "Islamic mysticism",[11][12][13] "the mystical expression of Islamic faith",[14] "the inward dimension of Islam",[15][16] "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam",[4][17] the "main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization" of mystical practice in Islam,[18][19] and "the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice".[20] Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in the modern era including attacks and accusations from fundamentalist Islamic movements (such as Salafi-Wahhabist groups) who view the Sufis as those who have deviated from the deen, Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world.[21][22] It has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest.[23][24][25]
Etymology and definitions
[edit]The original meaning of ṣūfī seems to have been "one who wears wool (ṣūf)" symbolizing asceticism and detachment from worldly life[26], and the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable".[4][27] Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics.[4] Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ṣūf (wool) on linguistic and documented grounds.[28] Later, mediaeval scholars like Al-Biruni believed that the term 'Sufi' gradually evolved from the Greek term σοφός (sophos), which means wisdom or knowledge.[29] Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word to ṣafā (صفاء), which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea of tasawwuf as considered in Islam is tazkiyah (تزكية, 'self-purification'), which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi Al-Hasan ibn Salih al-Rudhabari (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity."[30][31]
Others have suggested that the word comes from the term Ahl al-Ṣuffa[32] ("the people of the suffah" or "the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr.[33] One of the most prominent companions among them was Abu Hurayra. These men and women who sat at the Prophet's Mosque are considered by some to be the first Sufis.[34][35]
The Arabic word tasawwuf (lit. 'to make oneself a Sufi'), generally translated as "Sufism", is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism.[27][36][37] The Arabic term Sufi has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings by both proponents and opponents of Sufism.[27] Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah (teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), gave definitions of tasawwuf that described ethical and spiritual goals:[note 1] and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts.[27][36] Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism, such as the "intensification of Islamic faith and practice"[27] and the "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals".[36]
The term Sufism was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as the sterile monotheism of Islam. It was often mistaken as a universal mysticism in contrast to legalistic orthodox Islam.[38] In recent times, the historian Nile Green has argued against such distinctions, stating that in the mediaeval period Sufism and Islam were more or less the same.[39] In modern scholarly usage, the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political, and religious phenomena associated with Sufis.[36]
Teachings
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Traditionally, Muslims believe that Islam is the route to God and aim to become closer to God in Paradise—both after death and following the Last Judgement. Sufis also hold that it is possible to draw nearer to God and more fully experience the divine presence in this life.[40] The chief aim of Sufism is to seek the pleasure of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of fitra.[8]
According to Moojan Momen, "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of al-Insān al-Kāmil ("the Perfect Human"), which posits that there will always exist a "qutb" (pole or axis of the Universe) on Earth: one who is the perfect channel of grace from God to humankind and in a state of wilayah ('sanctity', or 'being under the protection of Allah'). The Sufi qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i imam.[41][42] However, this belief puts Sufism in conflict with Shia Islam, since both the qutb—who, in most Sufi orders, is the head of the order—and the imam fulfil the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of Allah's grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the shaykh or qutb that is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the imam.[41][check quotation syntax] As a further example, a prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.[43]Many Sufis believe that reaching the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for a long time.[44] An illustrative example is the folk narrative of Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who lent his name to the Naqshbandi Order. It is believed that he served his initial instructor, Mohammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years until as-Samasi's demise. Subsequently, he is purported to have served several other mentors for considerable durations. Historical accounts indicate that he dedicated many years to aiding the less privileged members of the community. Following these efforts, his mentor advised him to focus on the care of animals, including cleaning their wounds and providing assistance.[45]
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor.[46] Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Seyyed Hossein Nasr).
Other arguments
[edit]The doctrine of "subtle centres" or centres of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition.[47] In general, these subtle centres or latâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition has been published by Muhammad Emin Er.[48]
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called the nafs (self, ego, person), a faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalb (heart), and ruh (soul). These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ruh).[49]
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher authorized in the Jerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.[50][non-primary source needed]
Theological perspectives
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Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional lineages.[48]
On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active self-disclosure or theophany.[51] This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand, there is the order from the Signifier to his signs, from the Artisan to his works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.[52]
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late Ottoman scholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.[53]
Muhammad
[edit]His [Muhammad's] aspiration preceded all other aspirations, his existence preceded nothingness, and his name preceded the Pen, because he existed before all peoples. There is not in the horizons, beyond the horizons or below the horizons, anyone more elegant, more noble, more knowing, more just, more fearsome, or more compassionate, than the subject of this tale. He is the leader of created beings, the one "whose name is glorious Ahmad". —Mansur Al-Hallaj[54]
Devotion to Muhammad is of primary importance in Sufism.[55] Sufis have historically revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Sufi poet Saadi Shirazi stated, "He who chooses a path contrary to that of the prophet shall never reach the destination. O Saadi, do not think that one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of the chosen one."[56] Rumi attributes his self-control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi writes, "I 'sewed' my two eyes shut from [desires for] this world and the next – this I learned from Muhammad."[57] Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the greatest man and states, "Muhammad's wisdom is uniqueness (